BUS610 Week 6 finial
Chapter Twelve Career Development and Career Management Thomas Barwick/Stone/Getty Images Learning Objectives After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:
• Understand and apply the elements of successful career development, including the design of quality management training programs. • Understand how to cope with special career challenges.
• Explain how to manage stress on and off the job. baa66968_12_c12_335-358.indd 335 6/17/13 12:00 PM Section 12.1 Career Development and Management Training Programs 12.1 Career Development and Management Training Programs Career development may be viewed from the perspective of an individual employee or from the orga- nization’s point of view. For an individual, career development consists of a series of activities designed to help one understand and overcome challenges as well as identify and take advantage of opportuni - ties. Many companies consider career development to be a key organizational process, because people represent a valuable resource. Consequently, career development consists of all efforts and activities conducted by individual employees and the organization to help each person choose and follow the best path.
This chapter focuses on the topics of personal career development, manager training, and the various ways to cope with special career challenges such as dual careers, employee out-processing, and stress management.
Learning Objective #1 What elements are involved in career development?
OB in Action Hamburger University McDonald’s Hamburger University is one of the most famous man - agement training programs in the United States. The original facility, housed in Oak Brook, Illinois, contains 13 teaching rooms, a 300-seat auditorium, 12 interactive education rooms, 3 kitchen labs, and service training labs in a building that totals 130,000 square feet. Regional training teams are also assigned to 22 other locations around the world, along with 7 additional major university centers, each designed to cater to the unique needs of an area or region.
The original Oak Brook facility has 19 full-time faculty members. Instruction involves a combination of classroom teaching, hands-on lab activities, goal-based scenarios, and computer e-learning modules. Interpreters are available to translate the curriculum into 28 languages. Four basic program formats are available, including Crew Development, Restaurant Managers, Mid-Management, and Executives (McDonalds .com, 2011). More than 5,000 students participate in Hamburger University courses each year. Additional training through regional centers accompanies what they learn on site. McDonald’s emphasizes diversity in the selection of students who will attend the training program. The process by which individuals are admitted is extremely competitive and limited to those with the highest career potential, both to become effective retail store managers and to succeed in the larger corpora - tion. The actual acceptance rate of candidates seeking to enter Hamburger University is smaller than that of students applying to Harvard (Cetera, 2011). Some of the credits earned can transfer to colleges and universities. Associated Press McDonald’s Hamburger University in Shanghai, China. As foreign interest grows, McDonald’s designs new training centers that match the needs of the local region. (continued) baa66968_12_c12_335-358.indd 336 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 12 Section 12.1 Career Development and Management Training Programs Career Development: Employee Perspective As noted in Chapter 1, the environment encompassing the world of business presents numerous chal- lenges and opportunities. The primary concepts that apply to personal su\ ccess in that context are • building an ethical foundation; • training and preparation; • finding the right person-organization fit; • engaging in efforts at continuous improvement; and • achieving balance. From a personal perspective, career development includes the enhancement of four key personal assets, displayed in Table 12.1. Table 12.1: Employee career assets Asset Description Education degrees held, grades earned, activities while in school Experience amount, types, applicability to managerial roles Personality Traits motivation, team player, leadership potential, organizational skills Contacts references, mentors within the industry Each of these assets can be enhanced by one’s own personal efforts. Returning to school, obtaining addi - tional training through conferences and seminars, earning the best grades possible, and staying active\ while achieving an education are valuable to many employers. Experience may be built while in school through leadership roles on campus, through internship programs with actual businesses, and later as part of one’s growth as an employee. Key personality characteristics will also make an employee more competitive when it comes to being hired for a new job or being promoted into a new position. Work - ing toward being a better team player, displaying effort, and learning to lead can all be accomplished through practice, coaching, and training programs. Developing contacts who will provide quality refer - ences, assist as a career unfolds, and offer help and insight should be an ongoing activity. In sum, a sig - nificant part of career development remains the responsibility of the individual. Hamburger University has had 275,000 graduates over a 50-year time span. Forty percent of McDonald’s senior man - agement team members have graduated from the institution. Outside observers note the degree of pride and high morale associated with attending and graduating with a Ph.D. in Hamburgerology (CNN, 2010). Questions for Students 1. What should be the primary training goal of Hamburger University? 2. What type of person would exhibit the high career potential that would cause the individual to be admitted to Hamburger University? 3. What types of training methods should be used at the institution? OB in Action (continued ) baa66968_12_c12_335-358.indd 337 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 12 Section 12.1 Career Development and Management Training Programs Career Development: Management Training Programs The second part of career development rests with employers. Management training programs assist orga- nizations with receiving the highest potential from each worker, making preparations for future manage- rial succession, and building employee morale, because they demonstrate \ a promote-from-within policy.
The standard steps involved in manager training include establishing the goals of t\ he program, selecting individuals for training, identifying training methods, conducting the program, and following up.
Manager Training Goals Individual companies establish manager training goals based on local nee\ ds. Each then adapts training methods to the individuals selected and the objectives that have been ou\ tlined. Management training goals include improvements in technical skills and managerial skills, re-socialization, assistance in ethi - cal reasoning, and strengthening international/cultural skills.
Technical skill training often targets individuals who will move into first-line supervisory or middle- management roles. Sales managers are taught methods to serve customers, close sales, and provide qual - ity service along the way that can then be transferred to individual employees and salespeople making calls on other organizations. Information technology managers learn more about the system and how to protect it. Accountants are trained to more fully understand the company’s system and how it operates.
Managerial skills include the basic fundamentals of planning, organizing, directing, and controlling.
These skills include technical, conceptual, and human relations activities. As individuals move into top management roles, it is logical that the emphasis on conceptual skills will increase, as these individuals are required to see the “big picture” and manage it effectively. Note that all of the subjects described in this book can be incorporated into training, with the goal of improving and enhancing managerial skills.
Re-socialization involves the transition from entry-level employee to supervisor or manager. Part of this change may involve managing friends or persons who are older. Many management training programs integrate re-socialization into the system, teaching candidates to evaluate company\ activities from a dif - ferent perspective (managerial rather than rank-and-file) and help develo\ p elements of emotional intel- ligence and emotional maturity.
Ethical reasoning and training has been added to many management training programs. As circumstances become increasingly complex, and new ethical challenges continue to arise, managers need the tools to assess and respond to new dilemmas (Schmitt, 2002; Weaver, Trevino, & Cochran, 1999). In light of the massive ethical violations identified in the past decade, it is clear work remains.
Managers expecting assignments to foreign countries need training in international and cultural adaptation, along with other issues as described in Chapters 1 and 2. National and organizational culture influence indi- vidual perceptions of values and ethics and affect atti - tudes, assumptions, and expectations associated with an international role. Further, local customs and the local language may become part of this type of training effort (Javidan & House, 2001; Mendenhall, 1988–1989; Sumner, 1906). iStockphoto/Thinkstock One goal of management training is enhancement of international/cultural adaptation skills. baa66968_12_c12_335-358.indd 338 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 12 Section 12.1 Career Development and Management Training Programs Selecting Individuals for Training Choosing internal candidates for manager training requires the cooperation of several individuals and departments. The human resource department can provide information regarding each employee’s track record of performance, as well as incident reports regarding accidents, grievances, and other inci- dents. The employee’s direct supervisor can offer insights regarding the individual’s temperament and demeanor on—and sometimes off—the job. Coworkers may render opinions as to the advisability of selecting a person for training. Companies also rely on various tests and instruments designed to assess the individual’s readiness for a managerial position, including assessments of the Big Fiv\ e personality characteristics described earlier in this book as well as specially desi\ gned personality profile tests devel - oped by individual companies.
Identify Training Methods After training goals have been established and individuals have been selected, the company can proceed to identify the training methods to be used. Most of the time, a combination of the approaches outlined in Table 12.2 will be prescribed. Each offers unique contributions to what the individual will learn about managing in a specific organization.
Table 12.2: Manager training methods On the job Off the job Incremental assignment of new tasks Outside reading (technical and managerial) Job rotation Additional education (in house; on campus) Lateral promotions Attending conferences and seminars Leadership of teams and committees Specially designed programs Both Mentoring programs Coaching programs On-the-job trainees can be assigned new tasks over time to help them gra\ dually learn more about the company. For example, a supervisor can learn how to fill out report forms one week and how to engage in the selection process for entry-level positions the next. Over time the individual learns various tasks associated with the role of supervisor in a specific company. A job rotation program can also be used to train workers, as it moves the trainee to different departments and assignments within the company so he or she can more fully learn how the organization operates and how various groups interact.
A lateral promotion means giving the individual a new title or a pay raise without m\ oving the person to a higher rank in the organization; this type of promotion offers the illusion of upward movement. Lateral promotions often include changing a person’s title from “trainee” to “assistant” or “associate” manager.
Leading committees, task forces, and other groups also grants the trainee the opportunity to practice managing in a real work situation. baa66968_12_c12_335-358.indd 339 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 12 Section 12.1 Career Development and Management Training Programs Off-the-job training methods include assigning outside reading and assigning the trainee to participate in other types of educational activities, such as conferences or seminars. These activities help the trainee build technical skills, managerial knowledge, and socialization skills. Some companies offer tuition assis- tance to trainees so they may attend a local university and complete add\ itional education. Many large companies have actually built company universities complete with classroom, dorm rooms, and other amenities found at traditional universities; an example is McDonald’s\ Hamburger University. Confer - ences and seminars can support three training objectives: technical skills, managerial knowledge, and socialization. Specially designed programs are tailored to a company’s specific needs, including the well- respected manager training systems at IBM and Sherwin-Williams.
Mentoring programs involve formal and informal support provided by an experienced and higher- ranking employee to a trainee or new manager. Mentoring includes the development of a trainee with the objective of increasing the employee’s competencies, achievements, and understanding o\ f the orga - nization. The responsibility for setting up meetings, deciding what to talk about, and \ deciding when to end the relationship is in the hands of the trainee and the mentor. Successful mentors help trainees avoid political problems and conflicts as well.
Coaching programs place an expert with a trainee on his or her job over a period of weeks or months to provide continuous feedback and guidance on how to improve.
Most coaches also encourage their trainees to discuss dif - ficult situations as they arise and work through alterna - tive scenarios for dealing with the situations. Coaching is a relatively new technique and is growing in popularity.
Few guidelines are available to evaluate whether a coach- ing program has been successful. Part of the difficulty in evaluating coaching systems comes from the ambiguity associated with the term “coaching.” Conduct the Program and Follow Up Manager training programs demand patience. It takes time for trainees to go through the program and even more time to assess results. Often, several years may pass before true outcomes are known. In the interim, various assessment tests can be designed to see if trainees have acquired the knowledge presented to them in the program. The true test arrives when the knowledge is applied to actual situations. Modi\ fications are made when the program does not achieve its goals. Successful promotions may also involve adjustments over time.
In summary, career development includes all efforts and activities conducted by individual employees and the organization to help each person choose and follow the best path. The prim\ ary concepts that apply to personal success are building an ethical foundation, becoming involved in training and prepa- ration, finding the right person-organization fit, engaging in continuous improvement, and achieving balance. Organizational needs also must be met to fully achieve a quality career development system. Digital Vision/Thinkstock Some companies offer tuition assistance programs or training opportunities, such as conferences and seminars. baa66968_12_c12_335-358.indd 340 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 12 Section 12.2 Career Development: Special Challenges Comprehension Exercise 1. Which would not typically be a goal of manager training? a. preparing for domestic job transfer b. improving technical skills c. improving managerial skills d. socialization Answer: 1) a 12.2 Career Development: Special Challenges In addition to the efforts that individuals can make to advance their careers and the management training programs organizations employ, there is a third element of career development: helping employees cope with special career challenges. In this section, the challenges of dual careers and employee out-process- ing are described. In the next section, the topic of stress and stress management receives consideration.
Dual Careers In the 1950s, the term “dual-earning couple” was used to note that\ an increasing number of families had both husband and wife as wage earners. Today, over 80% of households that contain a husband and wife can be considered dual-earning households, and more than 50% of the U.S. workforce comprises employees from dual-earning couples with children (Bruning, 2004).
A distinction should be made between a “dual-earning couple” and a “dual-career couple.” The difference arises from career goals. In a dual-earning couple, one or both partners simply seek to generate income to support the family; in a dual-career couple both partners try to build and sustain careers. Both types of arrangements generate similar problems for couples. Four of the more common include priorities, children, role conflicts, and energy lev - els/work–life balance (Sekaran, 1986). These issues were first described in Chapters 1 and 2.
Priorities The essence of priority issues revolves around the simple question, “Whose job comes first?” When one spouse is offered a promotion that involves relocation, the priority Learning Objective #2:
What can individuals and managers do to cope with special career challenges? iStockphoto/Thinkstock Dual careers create challenges for partners and their children. Balancing the roles of employee, spouse, and parent can be difficult. baa66968_12_c12_335-358.indd 341 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 12 Section 12.2 Career Development: Special Challenges question comes to the fore (Pave, 1985). In addition, one job may require additional time, including nights and weekends, which may force the other spouse to adapt to a new situation. That spouse, for example, may be required to take on more household responsibilities. Trying to achieve an equitable balance of labor in terms of household chores can result in conflict and disagreement (Moen & Yu, 2000).
Children The decision to bear and take care of children often presents dual-career couples with major challenges.
As women postpone the birth of their first child in order to build a career, the eventual adjustment to a new person in the household requires both spouses to make changes (Toufexis, 1987). Many seek the assistance of a child-care professional or nanny and this number is increasing (Bruning, 2004).
Role Conflicts Dual-income and dual-career families may encounter various forms of role conflict. One version revolves around the tradeoff between family life and work life. In essence, the conflict arises due\ to countervailing demands to be an effective employee and a good parent/spouse. The wife/mother role strain issue continues for many women (Stanfield, 1985), as does the f\ ather/husband role conflict for men (Jayson, 2009).
Energy Levels/Work–Life Balance As the other issues imply, the continuing challenges for dual-career families revolve around balancing home and work responsibilities while paying sufficient attention to one’s spouse, one’s children, and oneself. Part of the formula involves making sure to get adequate rest. Fatigue can create both stress and conflict in the household (Levine & Pitinski, 1997).
Coping Mechanisms for Couples Numerous resources have been made available to help dual-career families, as described in Chapter 2.
Spouses can also work toward a more harmonious partnership. Standard advice to dual-career couples includes the three Cs: communication, cooperation, and commitment, combined with flexibility, rest, and time away.
Communication takes the form of expressing concerns and problems as they arise, so both partners share an understanding of difficulties and resentments as they occur. Storing up grievances typically results in more explosive confrontations later. Cooperation means making a conscious effort to accom- modate a partner ’s needs, understanding that at times, the other person’s job may \ be at a higher level of activity and stress. Commitment involves making a continuing mental pledge to make the r\ elation - ship work.
Flexibility becomes a major issue as career events unfold. Rest means setting aside time to take care of oneself. Activities such as reading, exercising, yoga, and other methods to relax can help maintain a more positive home environment. Time away includes time away as a couple and time away alone. Taking vacations and using sick days when ill allow both spouses time to heal, \ relax, and regenerate energy.
Everyone needs time to recharge and rejuvenate. baa66968_12_c12_335-358.indd 342 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 12 Section 12.2 Career Development: Special Challenges Dual Careers: Company Perspective Organizations have vested interests in the well-being of employees in dual-career marriages. Many employ- ers try to assist couples in overcoming the problems associated with balancing work and family. These issues influence productivity, job satisfaction, and commitment to the organization (Fernandez, 1986).
Organizations must respond to the legislative demands regarding dual careers. The Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) allows 12 weeks of unpaid leave for workers with caregiving responsibilities who are employed in workplaces with at least 50 employees for each working day\ during each of 20 or more calendar workweeks in the current or preceding calendar year (Polatnick, 2000).
Dual careers also impact the assignment of employees to other countries. Many ex\ patriate failures are attributed to non-work-related family issues (Harvey, 1995). The failures result from the family stress that compounds the adjustment associated with the expatriate’s new positio\ n and organizational expecta - tions. Family matters impact the expatriate’s adjustment directly and indirectly. Direct impact includes the potential loss of the trailing spouse’s income and potential futu\ re earnings, because the spouse often encounters career disruption (Harvey, 1995). Indirectly, the spouse and children can influence the level of tension, stress and dissatisfaction related to moving to a foreign country by creating a difficult family environment from which stress can transfer to the work environment (Solomon, 2000).
Company Assistance to Dual-Career Couples Company assistance to dual-career couples takes many forms. Four of the more common are on-site child care, flextime positions, job sharing, and telecommuting (Kopelman, Rosenw\ eig, & Lally, 1982). On-site child care presents the opportunity to reduce costs of lost work time. Employees who must leave to care for children experience reduced productivity and lower satisfaction. Child care programs represent an investment in employee morale (LaFleur & Newson, 1988).
Flextime positions allow employees to leave to tend to family matters wh\ ile working core hours. The positions serve the purpose of reducing family-related tardiness and absenteeism. The programs have been related to improvement in job satisfaction as well (Ezra & Deckman, 1996).
Job sharing divides one job into two part-time positions. The goal remains to reduce absenteeism and tardiness. The complication arises from coordination between the two persons occupying the job, and mixed results have been reported in terms of productivity and employee satisfaction (Bohen & Viveros- Long, 1981; Sheley, 1986).
A more recent development in job design, telecommuting, allows the employee to w\ ork from home.
New technologies make it possible to maintain an office off-site and send the bulk of work materials to one’s employer via the Internet and other digital methods. Improved phone systems make it possible for managers and employees to see each other while talking. Prior to the 200\ 8 recession, telecommuting jobs were among the fastest growing positions in the United States. Over time, resulting impacts on morale and productivity will emerge as these positions receive greater study.
Employee Out-Processing Employee out-processing, which occurs when a person leaves due to termination, layoffs, or retirement, has received additional attention in the past decade. The 2008 recession, combined with the aging of the Baby Boomer generation, has meant that numerous employees have left their organizations, many after long periods of service. baa66968_12_c12_335-358.indd 343 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 12 Section 12.2 Career Development: Special Challenges The primary issue associated with downsizing, outsourcing, and layoffs is ethical in nature. What is a company’s responsibility to workers displaced by these tactics? Should retraining and placement ser- vices be offered? During the economic difficulties of the 2008 recession, the argument could be made that companies simply did not have the resources to assist displaced workers. At other times, however, such would not have been the case.
When a company is able to provide out-processing services, the system may include two elements: an exit interview and severance packages when advisable. Exit interviews ma\ y be used to discover why an employee did not fit with an organization. Severance packages and other acts of concern by an orga - nization that is forced to displace a worker may be considered an investment in maintaining a quality company reputation.
Retirement The Baby Boomer generation consists of 78 million people in the United S\ tates. In 2011, the first wave of these individuals reached retirement age. By 2012, the number of potential retirees exceeded 1,000 per day (Slyker, 2011). Many of these individuals do not have sufficient resources to stop working. The challenges associated with an aging workforce include assisting those who stay on the job for financial resources and helping others assimilate into the retirement lifestyle.
Company programs designed to help those who do intend to retire include phased retirement programs, mentoring systems, and counseling programs. Phased retirement allows the employee to gradually ease into a departure while continuing to contribute to the organization on a part-time basis. Mentoring programs permit phased retire - ment candidates and those who have fully retired to offer advice and counseling to members of the organization.
The program grants a sense of fulfillment to those who might otherwise lack a sense of purpose. Counseling sys- tems help retirees adjust to new life circumstances by providing assistance with financial needs, emotional con- cerns, and other challenges such as medical needs.
As with terminations and layoffs, an ethical question arises. Does the company have a moral responsibility to assist in these circumstances? Some social critics suggest that doing so can also be in a company’s financial interests. Those who move into phased retirement or mentoring programs continue to contribute value to the organization’s operations, at a reduced cost.
In summary, special career challenges present themselves throughout a person’s life. Life events such as marriage (and divorce), children, the sudden need to care for an infirm parent, and retirement, along with personal losses such as being terminated or laid off, all can be managed. Caring organizations help employees tend to these and other employment matters. Monkey Business/Thinkstock Retirement planning is one form of employee out-processing. Organizations can offer mentoring programs and counseling systems to assist new retirees. baa66968_12_c12_335-358.indd 344 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 12 Section 12.3 Stress and Stress Management Comprehension Exercise 1. Which problem is not associated with dual-career couples? a. priorities b. children c. role conflicts d. blocked career progression 2. Which program divides a job into two part-time positions? a. flextime b. job sharing c. telecommuting d. division of labor Answers: 1) d 2) b 12.3 Stress and Stress Management The role of stress in a person’s career often changes, depending on circumstances. Early on in life, sim- ply finding a job creates stress. Over time, family issues, including dual careers, add an additional layer.
Each stage of life presents new challenges to employees and the companies where they work. The study of stress and its consequences has important implications for management and o\ rganizational behavior, for at least three reasons.
First, the argument can be made that adulthood has become more stressful for practically everyone, par - ticularly when you consider the pace of life. Employees are expected to react in nearly real time to many situations. They are bombarded with messages. Companies seeking to remain competitive have placed additional pressures to produce on employees at every level. It may also be that the sources of stress in daily living are rising, especially in turbulent political eras and during times of eco\ nomic turmoil. Second, the study of stress provides a rare opportunity for a scientist or professor to exert a direct, positive impact on the quality of work life. By understanding and managing stress, it becomes possible to improve the work - place for others. Third, stress clearly exhibits a bottom line. Those who fail to deal effectively with stressful jobs end up with emotional and physical symptoms that can keep them off the job and raise company insurance premiums as well (Segerstrom & Miller, 2004). Limited research suggests that productivity may also be related to manageable levels of stress (Allen, Hitt, & Greer, 1982; Ivancevich & Matterson, 1981).
One of the continuing issues in stress management is definitional (The American Institute of Stress, 2011).
One approach to understanding stress suggests that it is caused by various forces. This view, the anteced - ent model depicted in Figure 12.1, implies that various forces cause this nebulous thing labeled stress.
As an example, “She was going through a messy divorce and experienced a great deal of stress because Learning Objective #3:
What can a person and company do to help cope with on- and off-the-job stress? baa66968_12_c12_335-358.indd 345 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 12 Section 12.3 Stress and Stress Management of it,” or “He was in financial trouble and felt really stressed out as a result.” In both of those examples, stress represents a condition in which an individual confronts a situation in which the outcome is uncer- tain and important (Schuler, 1980).
Figure 12.1: Antecedent model of stress Events Stress The antecedent approach examines potential forces that are causes of stress-related problems.
A second conceptualization of stress focuses on what happens when it occurs. As shown in Figure 12.2, the outcome model of stress seeks to discover what happens when a person is routinely overwhelmed by stressful events (Sailer, Schlacter, & Edwards, 1982). Someone might say, “He was under so much stress that he had a heart attack,” or “She was so stressed out that she had a nervous breakdown.” Figure 12.2: Outcome model of stress Stress Events The outcome model of stress focuses on the results of stress, or the events that result from encountering large amounts of stress.
So, which is the case? Is stress a cause or an effect? In 1951, one famous quote suggested that “Stress in addition to being itself, was also the cause of itself, and the result of itself” (The American Institute of Stress, 2011). Further, counselors and managers may focus more on helping individuals cope with stress- related problems. Assuming their perspective merits equal attention, a more complete stress model can be developed, as shown in Figure 12.3. The model serves as a guide for understanding and describing stress first, and then for resolving stress-related problems.
Figure 12.3: Full model of stress (Antecedents) (Models) (Outcomes) (Resolution) Coping Mechanisms Company Reaction Events · Life events · Wo rk events · Individual temperament Stress · Stress as stimuli · Fight or flight Events · Physical · Psychological · Social · Physical · Psychological · Social · Reduce stressors · Help wor kers · Placement · Training This model suggests that stress is related to both causes and outcomes. Coping mechanisms and company programs are included. baa66968_12_c12_335-358.indd 346 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 12 Section 12.3 Stress and Stress Management Antecedents or Causes of Stress After many years of research, a complex web of potential sources of stress has emerged. These sources can be placed into five categories, as shown in Figure 12.4.
Figure 12.4: Antecedents, causes, or sources of stress Environmental Sources · Political turmoil · Economic uncertainty · Social trends Work Events · Physical stressors · Social stressors · Job stressors Individual Temperament · Overachie vers · Type A Personality Organizational Factors · Organizational structure · Organizational life stage Life Events · Family problems · Non-family-oriented problems Stress Stress can originate from many different sources, including environmental sources, work events, individual temperament, organizational factors, and life events.
Environmental Sources In many countries, unstable governments, the threat of revolt, and terrorism create political uncertainty.
When political turmoil threatens one’s way of life, a potential source of stress arises. Economic uncer - tainty can worry a family because of the potential loss of job or home. \ The 2008 recession in the United States created a great deal of stress for those “underwater” on mortgages as well as unemployed indi\ - viduals and underemployed workers. Many also find certain social trends to be unsettling, especially those that inspire conversation and controversy. Further, actual elements in the environment, such as a tornado, earthquake, or hurricane, can become a source of stress, either through the worry that one might occur or in those who have experienced tragedies such as Hurricane\ Katrina and still cope with its aftereffects. baa66968_12_c12_335-358.indd 347 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 12 Section 12.3 Stress and Stress Management Life Events Many sources of stress emerge away from work. Certain disruptions or changes can create mental pres- sure on individuals. These potential stressors can be family-related or non-family-related. Examples of each are provided in Table 12.3 (Holmes & Holmes, 1970).
Table 12.3: Life events as sources of stress Family-Related Stressors Non-Family-Related Stressors Marriage Jail term Divorce Personal injury or illness Marital separation Outstanding personal achievement Marital reconciliation Death of close friend Death of spouse Financial problems Death of family member Change in residence Sexual problems New mortgage Pregnancy Change in living conditions Gain of new family member Change in social activities Son or daughter leaving home Traffic ticket Problems with in-laws Change in sleeping habits Conflicts during the holidays Work Events A great deal of stress results from issues on the job. Three major job-related categories of stress exist. Each contributes to stress-related problems in different ways.
Physical stressors include conditions inside the workplace such as excessive heat, excessi\ ve cold, polluted or smoke-filled air, loud noise, cramped work areas, proximity to high-traffic areas (inside and outside), dangerous work, overtime or long hours, and extensive travel. Physical stressors may not only affect an individual’s mental state but also be related to lower productivity. A construction foreman noted that when the temperature drops below 32 degrees Fahrenheit, a crew performs at 50% of capacity. In other words, a temperature below freezing doubles the cost of construction.
Social stressors can develop between two or more employees of the same rank or of different ranks. Many types of social stress may be found in everyday work. These include • conflicts with peers; • conflicts with supervisors; • discrimination; • sexual harassment; baa66968_12_c12_335-358.indd 348 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 12 Section 12.3 Stress and Stress Management • hazing; • group cohesiveness/morale problems; and • conflicts between groups. Managers can try to identify social stressors and reduce them when possible. A manager can intervene in a conflict and resolve the issue. A manager can also challenge those using offensive language related to gender or even levels of seniority to reduce the number of incidents. These problems contribute not only to stress levels in individual employees, but are also counterproductive to the organization in other ways (Quick & Quick, 1984).
Job stressors come from the basic demands of the work. Some are related to the worker ’s role (McClean, 1980), others to different forces. Each creates challenging circumstances for employees. Role conflict takes two forms. The first occurs when a task conflicts with the individual’\ s sense of right and wrong. The sec- ond takes place when two assigned tasks conflict with each other. Role ambiguity means the employee remains unsure about which tasks to complete or how to complete them. A matter as simple as having a new supervisor can generate role ambiguity as the worker seeks to satisfy the demands of a new boss. \ Role overload occurs when the amount of work expected of an employee exc\ eeds what the person can handle. Layoffs and downsizing often generate role overload for those who remain with the organiza - tions (Kahn et al., 1964; Sutton & Rafaeli, 1987).
Non-role-related job stressors include blocked career progression, otherwise known as a “dead-end job.” The perception, whether real or imagined, that getting promoted will be impossible creates a long- term stressor. The glass ceiling, which affects many female employees, represents blocked career progres - sion. Monotonous work can be stressful, especially to those seeking more meaningful employment. Rates of alcohol and substance abuse are often higher in boring work settings (Sutton & Rafaeli, 1987). Occup\ a - tion stress results from the type of work performed. Table 12.4 provides examples of low- and high-stress occupations (Frank, 2011; Zupek, 2011).
Table 12.4: Low- and high-stress occupations High Stress Low Stress police officer civil engineer firefighter carpenter, mason financial aid counselor industrial machinery mechanic sales account manager operations research analyst restaurant assistant manager massage therapist nurse college professor Individual Temperament Two types of individuals may be predisposed to stress-related problems, due to their basic natures. Over - achievers and those with the Type A personality factor may experience problems due to the aggressive nature of their personality. Overachievers are highly competitive with others and themselves. Such indi - viduals do not achieve true satisfaction from accomplishments and constantly move on to the next chal - lenge, leaving them vulnerable to stress-related problems. In fact, one apt description of a true type A is baa66968_12_c12_335-358.indd 349 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 12 Section 12.3 Stress and Stress Management someone who tries to do more and more in less and less time. These individuals tend to be impatient and caustic with those who slow them down.
Type A personalities received a great deal of attention in the 1980s. The Type A trait was originally identi- fied in heart attack victims that survived. Research suggested that an extreme Type A will be susceptible to a heart attack, partly due to heightened blood pressure and partly because constant frustration and annoy - ance produce destructive enzymes associated with an “angry heart” (Friedman & Rosen\ man, 1974; Ragland & Brand, 1988). More recent literature disconnects hostility or continual anger from other Type A tendencies and notes that it may be the primary culprit in heart-related problems brought on by one’s personality.
Organizational Factors Organizational structure refers to the level of differentiation employed by a company, the number of rules and procedures it has established, and the degree of delegation or decentralization that characterizes it.
Excessive use of authority over workers performing simple tasks that are regulated by numerous rules and procedures can become stressors.
Organizational life cycle means that companies go through four periods over time: birth and development, growth, maturity, and decline. Organizations just beginning operations create stress, even though some of it may be due to excitement and challenges. Companies in decline normally experience layoffs and uncertainty, also creating stress, but of a different (and more negative) variety.
A Stress Model Hans Selye was among the first to identify and model stress and stress coping mechanisms. The term used to describe his model—”fight or flight”—has received considerable attention. The GAS, or General Adaptation Syndrome, approach is displayed in Figure 12.5.
Figure 12.5: General Adaptation Syndrome/Fight or flight model Event (Stimulus) Result Individual Reaction Fight Flight A stressful stimulus prompts one to choose either a fight or flight response, which in turn leads to a result. How one feels about the chosen response and subsequent outcome (i.e., individual reaction) determines how effectively one has dealt with the stressful stimulus. baa66968_12_c12_335-358.indd 350 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 12 Section 12.3 Stress and Stress Management As shown in the figure, an event or stimulus demands attention. The stimulus can be positive,\ neutral, or negative. A positive stimulus might be a friend waving “hello.” A negative stimulus might result from being yelled at or the gesture of an aggressive driver. A neutral stimulus occurs when the phone rings, because you do not as yet know what the call will be like.
In each circumstance, a fight response involves dealing with the stimulus directly. Someone who cuts you off in traffic and then gestures may lead you to “get even” in some way, such as by passing him later or, at the extreme, phoning the police to warn them a drunk driver is in front of you. A flight response means finding a way to avoid the stimulus, such as slowing down and moving awa\ y from the bad driver.
Neither reaction—fight or flight—is “good” or “bad” in and of i\ tself. Rather, how you feel after the response will be the key. When you feel you have successfully adapted to the stimulus, you have \ dealt with the stressor in an effective manner. When lingering emotions or doubts continue to haunt you, the response has created additional stress. Selye points out that stress cannot and should not be avoided, but rather managed.
Counselors who employ the fight-or-flight model try to help individuals develop positive coping mecha- nisms for every type of stimulus. In essence, you can learn to “pick \ your fights” and “let go” at other times. Remember that Selye’s work concentrates on the biological aspe\ cts of stress far more than the psychological elements (Selye, 2011). Selye also points out that people need a certain level of stress to function. The appropriate amount establishes the mental energy to cope with the challenges of the day.
Only when stressors overwhelm the individual over time does distress emerge (Selye, 1974).
Symptoms of Distress Distress, or strain, can be used to differentiate normal, manageable levels of stress from a circumstance in which the individual becomes overwhelmed and symptoms begin to occur. The symptoms of distress include physical, psychological, and social outcomes, as summarized in T\ able 12.5.
Table 12.5: Symptoms of distress Physical PsychologicalSocial Heart and Circulatory • High Blood Pressure • Heart Attack Insomnia Rage Stomach • Ulcer • Gastritis • “Nervous” Stomach • Diarrhea Tension Headache Inappropriate Behaviors Lungs • Hyperventilation • Nervous Coughing Depression Creation of New and Unnecessary Conflicts Skin • Hives • Acne • Dermatitis • Galvanic Skin Response (sweating) Nervous Breakdown Family Violence (continued) baa66968_12_c12_335-358.indd 351 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 12 Section 12.3 Stress and Stress Management Table 12.5: Symptoms of distress (continued) PhysicalPsychologicalSocial Sexual Problems Other Marital Problems Substance Abuse Alcohol Legal Drugs Illegal Drugs Physical outcomes normally begin with less severe outcomes but then increase over time. Occasional indigestion might evolve into more dramatic and chronic stomach problems. High blood pressure over time results in heart attacks and strokes. The same progression often takes place with psychological out - comes (McClelland & Jemmott, 1980). What might begin as an occasional sleepless night might evolve into chronic insomnia. Social manifestations of distress may be less evident to a supervisor, as many take place off the job. At the same time, a manager can detect persons appearing to exhibit stress-related symptoms using the checklist provided in Table 12.6.
Table 12.6: Supervisor’s checklist for stress • New, never-before-seen conflicts with peers • Higher levels of absenteeism or tardiness • Lower productivity • Argumentativeness • Daydreaming • Leaving early for breaks or at the end of the day • Extended lunch hour • Hangovers, obvious aftereffects of drug abuse • Statements:
“I can’t take much more of this.” “I’m thinking about quitting.” “This isn’t worth it.” • Unwillingness to follow directions (when it had never previously been a problem or issue) • Throwing/breaking objects The point can be reached in which an individual requires help. Fortunately, the symptoms of distress can be addressed before they become too severe. Table 12.7 identifies methods for coping with the stress of life as well as distress (Charlesworth & Nathan, 2004). baa66968_12_c12_335-358.indd 352 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 12 Section 12.3 Stress and Stress Management Table 12.7: Coping with stress and distress Physical Coping MechanismsPsychological Coping Mechanisms Social Coping MechanismsCombination Approach proper diet meditation/prayer/quiet time support group (work) biofeedback (combines physical and psychological) mild exercise prioritization/time management support group (home) regular rest/sleep frontal attack on stressors massage healthy escapes (hobbies and vacations) Proper diet includes avoidance of foods that might make stress symptoms worse, such as caffeine, energy drinks, and other elements of an upper-downer cycle. Mild exercise discharges tension and creates posi- tive energy. Regular rest can help reduce fatigue.
Quiet moments at any time appear to address stress symptoms (Wallace & Benson, 1972). Prioritization and time management seek to regain a sense of control over the day. A frontal attack involves removing stressors proactively. Healthy escapes include relaxing hobbies and vacations. Biofeedback, a combina - tion approach, involves mental control over physical symptoms through relaxation and focus techniques (Lazarus, 1981; Schwartz & Andrasik, 2005). Support can come from friends at work or from family and others off the job (Cohen & Wills, 1985).
Complicating Factors It appears that interactive relationships exist between both the sources of stress and the coping mecha - nisms. An additive situation occurs when stressors “pile up” on a person. In other words, physical, mental, and social pressures add together to create an even more stressful situation. In a compensating circum- stance, one category of antecedents or outcomes can reduce stress in another. Walking to reduce stress is physical compensation for mental stressors. Biofeedback is a counseling and training program in which subjects learn how to mentally compensate for and control physical stress symptoms, such as by learn - ing how to control one’s own pulse and breathing patterns through various relaxation techniques during stressful episodes. Social support compensates for both physical and mental\ stress. Further, categories within the same category can compensate, such as when a person travels h\ ome to relieve the stress of a pressure-filled job or goes to work to get away from a troubling marriage or personal life.
Segmented circumstances suggest an ebb and flow to both the sources and symptoms of stress. At times a job may feel overwhelming; at others it becomes manageable. The same holds true for physical, mental, and social systems (Seers et al., 1983).
Company Responses Company leaders can take four steps to reduce the impact of stress in the workplace. First, they can work to reduce stressors that arise in the workplace, including attention to all of the potential sources. Second, human resources and other managers can identify individuals appearing to suffer with stress-related prob - lems and offer help. Third, employees can be placed properly. Some individuals enjoy being busy and chal - lenged; stress does not seem to be an issue. Others can feel quickly overwhelmed. As part of the recruiting and selection process, the individual can be informed about the level of tension and act\ ivity to expect in baa66968_12_c12_335-358.indd 353 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 12 Chapter Summary any position. Finally, companies can teach and offer stress management programs and techniques. Many organizations now provide exercise facilities, in-house game areas, and even neck massage to those who are bound to desks throughout the day. Companies can schedule appearances by stress management experts to further assist employees in coping with today’s challenging and fa\ st-paced business environment.
In general, one secret to reducing stress-related issues in the workplace is to be proactive. The manage- ment team can investigate the organization and discover areas that require attention. Problem situations should be quickly addressed and remedied.
Chapter Summary Career development consists of all efforts and activities conducted by individual employees and the organization to help each person choose and follow the best path. Issues i\ nclude personal career devel - opment, manager training, and the various ways to cope with special career challenges such as dual careers, employee out-processing, and stress management.
Personal career development involves an individual enhancing his or her educational \ level, experiences, personal characteristics, and list of contacts. Employers offer management training programs, which include the steps of establishing the goals of the program, selecting individuals for training, identifying training methods, conducting the program, and following up. Management training can take place on the job in the form of incrementally assigning new tasks, having the trainee perform job rotations, award - ing lateral promotions, and assigning trainees to lead teams and committees. Off-the-job manager train - ing involves technical and managerial outside reading, additional education, attendance at conferences and seminars, and specially designed company programs. Mentoring and coaching programs take place both on and off the job.
Three career challenges are dual-career marriages, employee out-processing, and stress management.
Each creates an impact on organizational behavior variables, including productivity, workplace satis - faction, organizational commitment, conflict, absenteeism, tardiness, and turnover. Practical responses to these issues can help a company achieve the status of being family- or employee-friendly, building a positive reputation for the future.
Dual-earning and dual-career couples face issues that include priorities, children, role conflicts, and energy levels/balance. Couples can respond to dual-career challenges through communication, coordi - nation, commitment, flexibility, rest, and time away. Companies can assist dual-career situations through on-site care programs, flextime systems, job sharing, and telecommuting programs.
Employee out-processing involves the decision to assist those who have been terminated \ or laid off.
Many believe the issue raises ethical and moral questions. Companies can\ offer assistance in the form of helping those who must continue to work due to financial concerns as wel\ l as helping retirees through phased retirement, mentoring, and career counseling programs.
The study of stress and its consequences has implications for management and organizational behavior, due to issues associated with the pace of life, the quality of life, and the company’s bottom line. The sources, or antecedents, of stress begin with environmental sources such as political turmoil, economic uncertainty, and social trends. Life events that contribute to stress include problems associated with one’s family as well as non-family-oriented problems. Work events consist of physical, social, and job-related stressors, including role conflict, ambiguity, and overload. Organizational factors associated with stress baa66968_12_c12_335-358.indd 354 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 12 Chapter Summary include a company’s structure and its stage in the life cycle. An individual’s particular temperament— overachieving or Type A—can contribute to stress-related problems.
The terms “distress” and “strain” refer to circumstances in which normal, manageable levels of stress become a situation in which the individual becomes overwhelmed and sympt\ oms begin to occur. The symptoms of distress include physical, psychological, and social outcomes. Coping mechanisms can be produced in the same three areas. The individual must know if he or she operates in an additive, com- pensating, or segmented mode to achieve the greatest relief from distress.
Company leaders have four methods to assist in the areas of stress and distress. These include reducing the sources of stress, identifying people with stress-related problems and offering help, placing people into jobs they can manage, and offering stress management programs and facilities.
Comprehension Exercise 1. Fight and flight responses are found in Hans Selye’s a. antecedent model of stress. b. outcome model of stress. c. general adaptation syndrome stress model. d. additive model of stress. Answer: 1) c Case Study: The Crossroads Rachel and Jeff sat together waiting for an appointment with the director of human resources, although the purposes of their visits were quite different. Jeff was about to inform the company of his intention to quit in two weeks. Rachel had applied to become part of the management training program. Rachel and Jeff were employed by the Lucky Seven Casino and Resort, which was located on the river in Gulfport, Mis - sissippi. Following the hurricane that devastated the area a decade ago, the area had begun to grow and rebound, especially for destination gamblers who wanted gaming rooms but also other amenities, including tourist attractions, golf courses, and shopping in the area.
Jeff worked in the main card playing area. He was a novice dealer, which meant his shifts took place at night. He was married and had two children in grade school. The job kept him away from his family except on weekends, when more experienced dealers took the shifts where gratuities were higher. Jeff often came home to a harried wife, Sue, who was frustrated with taking care of the children and feeling “stuck at home” all week. Jeff made sure Sue was free on week - ends to get away and do other things, but this meant they spent less time together. There had been tension between Jeff and Sue for several months. The actual job also bothered Jeff at times. He was open-minded about lifestyles, but was sometimes disturbed by watching people gamble away money they could not afford to lose. He had hoped to move away from the gaming floor into some other aspect of the business, but few openings had materialized and he never became a serious candidate for those positions. The casino’s management team had strict policies about how to conduct operations. Jeff was told to treat gamblers as adults, which meant that no matter how much they lost, it was their concern. The dealer’s job was to (continued) baa66968_12_c12_335-358.indd 355 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 12 Review Questions Review Questions 1. What four career assets can an employee offer to a company? 2. What goals are associated with manager training programs? 3. What types of manager training programs can companies employ? 4. What four problems affect dual-career and dual-earning couples? 5. What programs can companies offer to assist dual-career couples? 6. What programs can companies offer to retiring employees? 7. Explain the difference between an antecedent model of stress and an outcome model of stress. 8. What categories of antecedents of stress affect employees on and off the job? 9. What are the categories of symptoms of distress? 10. What coping mechanisms can individuals use to deal with stress and distress? Answers to Review Questions 1. What four career assets can an employee offer to a company? The four assets are education, experience, personality traits, and contacts. 2. What goals are associated with manager training programs? Management training goals include improvements in technical skills and managerial skills, re-socializa - tion, assistance in ethical reasoning, and strengthening international/cultural skills. remain pleasant, positive, and professional. Jeff knew at times he was watching an “adult” gamble away money that should have been spent on food and medicine, sometimes for children. He became reluctant to tell people where he worked, and was somewhat embarrassed around those who knew. Jeff had begun battling insomnia and felt like he was in a bad mood far too often, which affected his free time with his children. As he waited to give notice, Jeff felt as though a weight was being lifted from his shoulders. Rachel was a free-spirited young adult who loved the idea of being part of the “action.” She enjoyed working nights and meeting new people. Her friends called her “terminally single.” She loved worked in the roulette wheel area, flirting with men, and charming the women, who seemed to like her enthusiastic, carefree approach. Rachel shared a house with two other coworkers. The low rent and inexpensive lifestyle allowed her to save the major - ity of her earnings. She took half and called it “fun money,” for traveling and expensive nights on the town. The other half was saved for either a college fund or to buy a home. She took pride in her fiscal responsibility, part of which was based on never gambling. Another of Rachel’s career assets was, in her own words, “no attention span.” Although the eight-hour shifts could become long and boring, when business was slow, Rachel was able to constantly meet new people. She was often invited to parties and other gatherings. As part of her interview for floor manager, Rachel was asked what kind of person fit best with the Lucky Seven. She responded, “Someone like me. Someone who takes care of the job and the customers, but knows how to enjoy the experi - ence at the same time.” She told the interviewer she knew Jeff was about to quit. “He takes himself so seriously ,” she noted. Case Questions 1. What should be the goals of the manager training program for the Lucky Seven? 2. What kinds of management training should the Lucky Seven offer? 3. What were the stressors that were affecting Jeff? 4. Why was Rachel not affected by stress in her job? Case Study: The Crossroads (continued) baa66968_12_c12_335-358.indd 356 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 12 Analytical Exercises 3. What types of manager training programs can companies employ? On-the-job programs include incrementally assigning new tasks, job rotation, lateral promotions, and leadership of teams and committees. Off-the-job programs include outside reading (technical and managerial), in-house or on-campus additional education, external conferences, and specially designed programs. 4. What four problems affect dual-career and dual-earning couples? Four of the more common include priorities (whose job comes first?), children (having and raising them), role conflicts associated with gender and work division, and energy levels/work–life balance related to having to work as well as tend to the home. 5. What programs can companies offer to assist dual-career couples? Standard advice to dual-career couples includes the three Cs—communication, cooperation, and com - mitment—combined with flexibility, rest, and time away alone and as a couple. Four of the more common company-based programs include on-site child care, flextime positions, job sharing, and telecommuting. 6. What programs can companies offer to retiring employees? Phased retirement allows the employee to gradually ease into a departure while continuing to contribute to the organization on a part-time basis. Mentoring programs permit phased retirement candidates and those who have fully retired to offer advice and counseling to members of the organization. Counseling systems, including assistance with financial needs, emotional concerns, and other new circumstances, help retirees adjust to new life circumstances. 7. Explain the difference between an antecedent model of stress and an outcome model of stress. The antecedent model implies that various forces cause stress. The outcome model of stress seeks to discover what happens when a person is routinely overwhelmed by stressful events. 8. What categories of antecedents of stress affect employees on and off the job? The five categories are life events, work-related events, personality characteristics or individual tempera - ment, organizational characteristics, and environmental sources. 9. What are the categories of symptoms of distress? The three categories are physical, psychological, and social. Physical includes issues related to the heart and circulatory system, stomach and digestive system, lungs, and skin. Psychological symptoms include insomnia, headache, depression, nervous breakdown, sexual problems, and legal and illegal substance abuse. Social symptoms are rage, inappropriate behaviors, creating new and unnecessary conflicts, fam - ily violence, and other domestic problems. 10. What coping mechanisms can individuals use to deal with stress and distress? Physical coping involves diet, exercise, proper rest, and massage. Psychological coping includes medita - tion/prayer/quiet time, prioritization/time management, frontal attacks on stressors, and health escapes through hobbies and vacations. Social coping comes from at-work and away-from-work social support. Biofeedback is a combination of physical and psychological coping. Analytical Exercises 1. Think of a career as having a life cycle (birth, growth, maturity, and decline). Consider the four career assets listed in Table 12.1. Evaluate the importance of each asset at each stage in the li\ fe cycle. 2. The five goals associated with manager training include technical skills\ , managerial skills, socialization, ethical reasoning, and international/cultural skills. Evaluate the potential effec - tiveness of on-the-job training, off-the-job training, and a combination of both with regard to each of the goals. baa66968_12_c12_335-358.indd 357 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 12 Key Terms 3. Four challenges associated with dual-career marriages or partnerships are priorities, children, role conflicts, and energy levels/work–life balance. Evaluate how these would manifest in the\ following circumstances: • Husband works high-powered professional job; wife works low-powered para - professional job. • Wife works high-powered professional job; husband works low-powered para - professional job. • Both partners work high-powered, professional jobs. • Both partners work low-powered paraprofessional jobs. • One partner has high schedule flexibility; the other does not. 4. Consider the five categories of antecedents, causes, or sources of stress in Figure 12.4. What kinds of connections are there, in terms of additive, compensating, and segmented situations, between\ the following: • work events and individual temperament • life events and environmental sources • organizational factors and work events 5. Four company responses to stress-related issues include reducing stressors in the workplace, identifying individuals who might require help, teaching stress management, and placing people properly into jobs they can handle. Explain how these could be combined wi\ th the indi - vidual coping responses listed in Table 12.7 in all four categories. Key Terms blocked career progression Also known as a dead-end job; a position that creates the real or imagined perception that getting promoted will be impossible. career development All efforts and activities con- ducted by individual employees and the organi- zation to help each person choose and follow the best path. coaching programs The process of placing an expert with a trainee on his or her job over a period of weeks or months to provide continuous feedback and guidance on how to improve. distress Also called strain; a situation in which an individual becomes overwhelmed by stress and problems or symptoms begin to occur. dual-career couple Both partners in a relationship try to build and sustain careers. dual-earning couple One or both partners in a relationship seek to generate income to support the family unit. mentoring programs The formal and informal support provided by an experienced and higher- ranking employee to a trainee or new manager. phased retirement A program in which an employee gradually eases into departure while continuing to contribute to the organization on a part-time basis. baa66968_12_c12_335-358.indd 358 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 12
