BUS610 Week 6 finial

Chapter Eleven Authority, Power, and Politics Antonio Mo/Getty Images Learning Objectives After reading this chapter and studying the materials, you should be able to:

• Define formal authority. • Identify the sources of power. • Understand how to utilize power effectively. • Recognize and respond to organizational politics. baa66968_11_c11_309-334.indd 309 6/17/13 11:59 AM Section 11.1 Authority 11.1 Authority Every day organizational operations involve processes and activities that are construed by many as “distasteful” or “unpleasant” parts of employment because th\ ey involve the use of authority, power, or politics. The word “politics” has a negative connotation for many people. Although they may try to avoid political situations, wishing them away is not possible. Furthermo\ re, not every use of power has a negative intention or outcome. Managers can exert power to achieve legit\ imate organizational goals. The end result may be an increase or decrease in personal power, and the events may be construed as being “political” or simply as “doing his or her job.” This chapter examines “authority,” “power,” and “politics” as separate topics. Authority can be evalu- ated as primarily a formal organizational process linked to the organizational hierarchy, as displayed in an organization chart. In that context, delegation constitutes the movement o\ f authority from a higher- ranking to a lower-ranking organizational member within the chain of command or from one peer to another of the same rank. Even then, however, two perspectives exist: one suggesting that authority can only flow downward and another arguing that it moves upward through the hierarchy.

Power contains both formal and informal elements. The basic elements of power are examined next in this chapter. The uses of power are also examined. Organizational politics will be the third topic ana - lyzed. Politics occurs on several levels and plays out in many ways. The\ effects of political activities on individual employees merit attention. The chapter concludes with an exam\ ination of the ethical ramifica - tions of power and politics.

Learning Objective #1:

How can a manager effectively use formal authority?

OB in Action Oprah Knows Power “Unless you choose to do great things with it, it makes no difference how much you are rewarded, or how much power you have” (Winfrey, 2011). If any one person in the United States understands the use of social power to achieve positive ends, it would be Oprah Winfrey, the person who made that statement. The award-winning actor, producer, and talk show host arose from the most desperate of beginnings to be named one of the “100 Most Influential People of the 20th Century” by Time magazine (Time.com, 2011). Following several troubled years in her youth, Oprah lived with her father, who taught the values of strict discipline and hard work. She became an honor student who competed in oratorical contests. At the age of 17, she won the Miss Black Tennessee Pageant and soon moved into radio. Within a short period of time, a local Chicago television station launched The Oprah Winfrey Show . By 1985, the program had become so popular that it went into syndication, where it quickly won Daytime Emmy awards. Using the status of the program as a Gallo Images/Rex Features/Associated Press Oprah Winfrey has become one of the most influential people of the 20th century. (continued) baa66968_11_c11_309-334.indd 310 6/17/13 11:59 AM CHAPTER 11 Section 11.1 Authority The Nature of Authority As was noted in Chapter 10, an organization’s structure establishes a chain of command. The mechanism used to operate the chain of command begins with authority, or the right to direct and the permission to act over lower level employees (Barnard, 1968). The “right to direct” grants the manager the ability to conduct company operations by telling people what to do. “Permissi\ on to act” reflects the decision- making aspect of authority, or the right to decide what to do.

The three types of authority are line authority, staff authority, and functional authority. Line author- ity is direct, formal authority, as indicated by the vertical lines of an organization chart. Staff authority consists of the right to advise, or give advice. Functional authority is\ the right to direct but not to disci - pline. It emerges when an individual has been assigned a leadership role on a task force, project team, or committee.

Employee responsibility, or accountability, is the obligation to carry out tasks as assigned by the super - visor. Each individual in a company is responsible to the manager at the next level up in the organiza - tion’s hierarchy. The concept of parity of authority and responsibility states that equal levels of authority and responsibility should exist in each position (Fayol, 1916). Anyone who has authority should be held accountable for how that authority is used. Anyone being held responsible should have sufficient author - ity to get the job done. base, Winfrey founded her own company, Harpo Productions, in 1986. The firm became a major force, involving itself in miniseries productions, magazine publishing, and the Internet. In 2005, Harpo began the production of a highly suc - cessful Broadway adaptation of The Color Purple and moved into animated films, including Charlotte’s Web, Bee Movie, and The Princess and the Frog. Initially, The Oprah Winfrey Show had featured sensationalistic stories and outrageous guests. Winfrey used her power and control as producer of the program to move away from sensationalism and toward a focus on spiritual values, self- help, and healthy living, themes reinforced in O, The Oprah Magazine . Her testimony before Congress helped lead to enactment of the “Oprah Bill” in 1993, which established a database to track convicted child abusers. Her companies support the Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls at its school in South Africa. In 2008, Oprah moved into the political realm for the first time, endorsing the candidacy of President Obama and mak - ing campaign appearances on his behalf. According to political observers, her support helped Obama win the election. In 2011, plans were announced to end The Oprah Winfrey Show in the following year. Her organization purchased the Discovery Health Channel to create OWN, the Oprah Winfrey Network. She clearly intends to continue to be a force in the world of entertainment, even after becoming the richest African American in the United States and the richest self- made woman in the country (Academy of Achievement, 2011). With regard to her power, Winfrey once commented: “Whatever you fear most has no power; it is your fear that has the power.” Questions for Students 1. What are Oprah Winfrey’s sources of power? 2. What are Oprah Winfrey’s uses of power, within her company and in other situations? 3. Do you believe Oprah has used her power effectively? OB in Action (continued ) baa66968_11_c11_309-334.indd 311 6/17/13 11:59 AM CHAPTER 11 Section 11.1 Authority Views of Authority Two basic perspectives have been developed regarding the origins of authority. The first considers authority from a top-down vantage point. The second suggests that the sources of authority emerge from the bottom of the organization and move upward.

Top-Down Authority Max Weber (1922) viewed authority as a force that originates at the top of the organization and flows downward. From that perspective, authority is derived from three sources: tradition, charisma, and law. Traditional authority results from the rule of kings, tribal chiefs, and the authority of the church. Authority moves from the state or a religious institution into various orga- nizations. One submits to authority in the same way that one obeys religious or governmental law.

Charismatic authority arises from a “gift of grace,” such as when a dynamic military leader inspires and guides troops. Colin Powell, former Secretary of State and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, has been noted as having of this type of charisma. Over time, such a leader obtains the right to influence those of lower rank through his or her personality characteristics and personal will.

Of greatest interest to the business community is the legal/ratio - nal basis of authority that results from an employment contract.

An employee agrees to the company’s authority as part of the arrangement by which a job is attained and kept. The worker receives compensation through pay and benefits.

Bottom-Up Authority The top-down approach to authority and organizational design enjoyed widespread acceptance for many years. Eventually, C. I. Barnard (1938/1968) created the bottom-up view of the nature of authority.

The acceptance theory of authority argues that authority cannot exist until subordinates have accepted it.

Four main ideas explain this approach, which states that authority is accepted when individuals • understand the nature of the authority. • believe the use of authority is consistent with the purposes of the organization. • believe authority is being used in ways that are compatible with their personal interests. • are able to comply. In reality, elements of truth exist in both the top-down and bottom-up perspectives. Many organizations contain elements of traditional, charismatic, and legal sources of authority, with varying degrees of influ - ence. At the same time, acceptance of authority is tempered by individual judgment and assessment of how authority is being used. Many ethical dilemmas arise from considerations of what is moral, what is legal, and what the individual considers to be the “right” thing t\ o do. Michael Blann/Stone/Getty Images Top-down authority is based at the top of an organization and flows downward.

In the bottom-up view of authority, subordinates must accept the authority of those at higher ranks. baa66968_11_c11_309-334.indd 312 6/17/13 11:59 AM CHAPTER 11 Section 11.1 Authority Delegation of Authority Delegation processes constitute a final aspect of authority. When a manager grants authority to a single subordinate, delegation takes places on an individual level. Examples of individual delegation \ include • an employee “taking over” for a manager who is on break, out sick, or on vacation. • a manager asking an employee to conduct an operation because the employe\ e has greater expertise. • a manager systematically increasing a subordinate’s control over operations as part of training or a mentoring process. • a manager having a subordinate lead smaller assignments so the manager can tend to more significant matters.

In each instance, the higher-ranking manager remains accountable for the use of authority and its outcomes.

A second form of delegation includes a more systematic approach: decentralization, which is organiza - tion-wide delegation of authority. Decentralization constitutes one element of employee empowerment processes, which are described later in this chapter.

In summary, authority, power, and politics are part of everyday working life. By understanding the nature of each, an employee can respond in ways that protect his or her best interests. Managers can use the same understanding to help curtail the negative aspects of political\ activities. Comprehension Exercise 1. Which type of authority is found in an employment contract? a. functional b. traditional c. charismatic d. legal/rational 2. Which individual argued that authority is a bottom-up process? a. Oprah Winfrey b. Max Weber c. C. I. Barnard d. Adam Smith Answers: 1) d 2) c Learning Objective #2:

What are the sources of power in an organization? baa66968_11_c11_309-334.indd 313 6/17/13 11:59 AM CHAPTER 11 Section 11.2 The Nature of Power 11.2 The Nature of Power “Power” constitutes a more inclusive term than “authority.” At the broadest level, power is the ability to influence the behaviors of others using formal and informal means (Bass\ , 1990). Authority may be con - ceived of as the right to influence due to formal organizational rank or position, but power represents the capacity or ability to influence others through additional means. Consequently, any discussion of power should consider elements beyond the organizational chart to achieve a more complete view (Bierstedt, 1950; Tedeschi, 1972; Votaw, 1966). Views of Power Several conceptual issues continue to influence studies of power. First, influence over others should be seen as potential as well as actual. In other words, a powerful individual may not necessarily need to act in order for his or her power to be felt. A truly powerful individual may not need to exert power and act, because the dif- ferential is so great between that person and others in the organization that they would not challenge him or her.

This means that when power is considered as not just actual influence but also the potential to influence , identifying its presence—for purposes of research, for example—becomes more problematic.

Second, due to the negative association of power with the unpleasant sid\ e of organizational activity, such as power that is aggressively used to injure, dominate, or intimidate others, some have made a dis - tinction between personalized power and social power. Personalized power occurs when an individual seeks to dominate and exert power for purposes of self-interest, such as using overt sexual harassment tactics or subtle organizational cues (lower performance appraisals, women passed over for \ promo- tion using “legitimate” or defensible reasoning) to dominate female employees. A great deal of sexual harassment can be attributed to power differentials between those of higher rank (and the other gender) and subordinates.

In contrast, social power represents the ability to marshal the human, informational, and material resources that enable peers, supervisors, and subordinates to accomplish various organizational tasks (Hollander & Offerman, 1990). Social power provides a positive force to help those in an organization achieve. In this context, power may be exerted downward, upward, or laterally.

A third concern has been raised in regard to the level of power present in an organization. The zero-sum game concept suggests that a fixed amount of power exists in an organization. As in a game of poker, one side can only win by causing the other side to lose. This means that acc\ umulating a higher degree of power only occurs when you take it away from someone else in the organization.

In contrast, the balloon concept of power suggests that the total amount of power in an organization fluctu - ates. Various organizational circumstances can expand or contract the total amount of power available. I\ n that context, in some instances a person could build a base of power without taking it away from others.

Generally, such an occurrence would occur in a more tranquil environment. Crises or turbulent environ- ments tend to freeze the amount of existing power held by participants. Art Wolfe/Stone/Getty Images Power is the ability to influence others using both formal and informal means. baa66968_11_c11_309-334.indd 314 6/17/13 11:59 AM CHAPTER 11 Section 11.2 The Nature of Power No matter which perspective one takes regarding these conceptual issues, studies of power tend to focus on how it can be acquired and how it is used. Gaining power has elements of organizational politics; however, when social power enters the picture, we see that power can be used in a positive manner.

Sources of Power Numerous explanations of the bases of power can be found in organizational behavior literature. Figure 11.1 provides a review of the various perspectives. Each contributes to our understanding of how indi- viduals, groups, coalitions, and organizations gain access to power.

Figure 11.1: Sources of power Fr ench and R aven J.D. Thompson Legitimate Coercive (control over punishments) Rew ard Re ferent Expert Other Control over Policy-Making Control over Money / Budgeting Control over Status Symbols Information P ower Boundary Spanning –Translate Uncertainty –Go-Between Fred E. Fiedler Position P ower (control over destiny) Aston Group Closeness to Production According to... Power emerges from a variety of sources. baa66968_11_c11_309-334.indd 315 6/17/13 11:59 AM CHAPTER 11 Section 11.2 The Nature of Power French and Raven: The Bases of Social Power The classic and most cited analysis of the sources of power, developed by John French and Bertram Raven (1959), suggests five sources. The first, legitimate power, originates from organizational rank and the formal authority that accompanies that rank. Legitimate power allows\ an individual or group to con- trol and use organizational resources. Legitimate power may be based on Weber ’s concepts of the legal/ rational source of authority as well as Barnard’s acceptance theory ideas.

Coercive power depends on the ability to punish and instill fear in others. As a formal source, the capacity to terminate, transfer, or demote someone generates power. Coercive power may be used to prevent a coworker or subordinate from receiving a pay raise or being promoted to a higher rank. As an informal source, coercive power resides in the ability to punish someone socially by making that individual the target of jokes, harassment, or other forms of intimidation and exclusion.

Reward power grows from the ability to create favorable out- comes for others. Formally, rewards include pay raises, pro - motions, favorable task assignments including working hours and days off, placement with pleasant coworkers, and special acknowledgements such as “Employee of the Month.” Infor - mally, reward power emerges from the ability to include others in various groups and activities, letting a person in on the best gossip and rumors, and being close to popular members of the organization. Some argue that the ability to remove rewards is the same as the ability to punish or wield coercive power; how - ever, the two processes are not exactly the same.

Referent power results from the ability to generate interpersonal influence. Referent power surfaces when someone identifies with another person based on respect or admiration. It also comes from persua- siveness, likeability, and charisma. Referent power largely takes place informally, or at a remove from the organizational hierarchy.

Expert power creates influence based on a special skill, knowledge, or degree of expertise. For example, an individual who controls specialized technology or uniquely understands how to handle a key a\ spect of an organization’s operations possesses expert power. This source may arise from a formal organi - zational designation, such as by being placed in charge of the information technology department, or informally, as when people simply think of a coworker as “the one to ask” about various issues and challenges.

The bases of social power have been applied to more than organizational operations. Marketers use them to explain how one company gains power over another in the marketing cha\ nnel. The same elements have been used to explain negotiation processes. Additional viewpoints regarding the sources of power, however, should not be ignored.

Other Sources of Power As shown in Figure 11.1, other sources of power have been envisioned. Thompson (1967) addressed the concept of boundary spanning, in which an organizational employee moves across an internal or George Doyle/Thinkstock Formal recognition, such as a promotion or an Employee of the Month award, is an example of reward power. baa66968_11_c11_309-334.indd 316 6/17/13 11:59 AM CHAPTER 11 Section 11.2 The Nature of Power external company boundary and realizes a source of power as a result. Two manifestations of boundary spanning exist. The first, translating uncertainty, occurs when a person or department addresses an issue that threatens the organization in some way, such as a new law, changing social dynamics, shifts in eco - nomic circumstances, or new technologies. An attorney who interprets the law to a company’s advantage has power based on translating uncertainty, as does an IT professional who helps create a computer sys - tem that cannot be hacked or attacked.

Second, boundary spanning occurs when an individual serves as a go-between. Any time a conflict is mediated by a third party, or when two departments are forced to cooperate on a project or task, the per - son in the middle has access to both sides and receives power from the ability to represent the interests of all concerned. This form of boundary spanning occurs internally (production working with marketing) and across external boundaries (one company working with another, or bargaining against another).

Position power, as identified by Fiedler (1967), arises from the ability to control the destiny of another person or group. The person charged with assigning some employees to a team that will visit Hawaii on a junket and others to a team that will tour a plant in South Dakota will likely find he or she has consider - able position power, at least for a time. Those who make permanent personnel assignments ho\ ld position power.

The Aston Group, a set of British researchers who studied organizational structure, defined power by studying closeness to production. In their view, creating actual organizational outputs (goods and services) constitutes the key company activity. Any person or group that can change or stop the production pro - cess, such as a union, has access to a considerable source of power. The more distantly a person works in relation to production, the less power that person holds (Hickson et al., 1971).

Beyond these views, other items may be associated with holding power. For instance, when a person has control over the policy-making process, power exists. A key advisor working behind the scenes may not hold organizational rank but may still possess considerable power. Control over budgeting results in power. The same holds true for information power, which comes from access to and control over informa - tion. Networking or connection power emerges from building strong interpersonal networks with those inside and outside of the organization. And finally, control over status symbols may generate power. A middle- or top-level manager who makes the decision to grant or deny acc\ ess to corporate perks such as assigned parking, more attractive office space, a company executive lounge or area, or financial incen - tives such as stock options has a source of power.

In summary, several issues remain unresolved regarding the best way to conceptualize the nature of power in an organization. Also, the number of ways in which a person might acquire power allows for a wide set of activities designed to strengthen one’s position in the organization.

Comprehension Exercise 1. The ability to marshal the human, informational, and material resources that enable peers, supervisors and subordinates to accomplish various organizational tasks is a. personalized power. b. social power. c. the potential to influence. d. actual influence. baa66968_11_c11_309-334.indd 317 6/17/13 11:59 AM CHAPTER 11 Section 11.3 Uses of Power 2. The ability to generate interpersonal influence is called a. coercive power. b. reward power. c. referent power. d. expert power. Answers: 1) b 2) c 11.3 Uses of Power Power can be thought of in terms of means and ends. An end is an objective or outcome and means con- stitute the method(s) used to achieve that outcome. Power becomes an end when it takes the form of per - sonalized power. Capturing and holding power becomes the goal. Power can also be a mean\ s by which objectives are accomplished, such as when social power is employed. In this section, we will consider the means and ends present in terms of three uses of power: social influence, creating and/or maintaining dependency, and employee empowerment.

Social Influence One of the primary uses of power is to exert social influence on others.\ Social influence is an umbrella term that encompasses all efforts to achieve outcomes by causing others to act in a certain manner or work toward certain goals. In essence, the objective becomes to “get your way” in one sense or another. These efforts lead to one of three possible outcomes, as displayed in Table 11.1 (Yukl, Kim, & Falbe, 1996).

Table 11.1: Outcomes of social influence Outcome Description Commitment Others agree with an initiative and try to make it succeed. Compliance Others are reluctant about or give marginal effort to making an initiative succeed. Resistance Others stall, argue, or simply reject an initiative. Influence can be exerted in every direction in an organization: upward, downward, or laterally. Factors to consider when exerting influence begin with an examination of the nat\ ure of the activity or objective.

When the objective serves the needs of the organization, and a clear case can be made that it does so, Learning Objective #3:

How can an individual effectively utilize power? baa66968_11_c11_309-334.indd 318 6/17/13 11:59 AM CHAPTER 11 Section 11.3 Uses of Power those being influenced may respond differently than when an objective supports someone’s personal agenda. Next, the choice of influence tactics, or power tactics, is determined. Table 11.2 identifies the most viable options. The approaches are known as “generic” tactics because they can be applied in any direction within the organization (Kipnis, Schmidt, & Wilkinson, 1980; Yukl, Falbe, & Youn, 1993).

Table 11.2: Types of influence tactics Non-Coercive TacticsCoercive Tactics Rational Persuasion Exchange Inspirational Appeals Coalition Consultation Pressure Ingratiation Legitimizing Personal Appeals The non-coercive tactics begin with rational persuasion, which involves presenting logical arguments and facts to achieve an objective. Inspirational appeals rely on emotions and target the audience’s needs, hopes, aspirations, or values. Consultation encourages support through participation and involvement, such as when a manager asks the advice of subordinates or a coworker asks for help from a peer. Ingra - tiation takes the form of flattery, friendly behavior, or praise to get one’s way. Humor may be an element of ingratiation (Cooper, 2005). Personal appeals seek to use friendship and loyalty to achieve\ objectives (Kipnis et al., 1984).

The coercive tactics include an exchange, in which a trade involving favors or some other promise is made to achieve objectives; a coalition, which involves inspiring others to take your side and help convince key individuals to follow your path; pressure, which uses warnings, threats, or repeated demands; and legitimizing, which depends on formal authority or company guidelines such as rules and procedures to achieve desired ends (Yukl, Falbe, & Youn, 1993).

The direction of the influence guides the use of influence or power tactics. Ra\ tional persuasion may be used in all directions—upward, downward, and laterally. Upward influence typically can only take place through rational persuasion. Downward and lateral influence situations allow for a greater number of potential tactics. Evidence also suggests that the non-coercive, or “softer,” tactics are the better place to begin. Coercive or “hard” tactics should be saved for times when non-coercive methods do not work (Ferris et al., 2003). Also, combinations of tactics, especially non-coercive tactics, tend to achieve better outcomes (Yukl, 2002). Typically, the outcome of commitment cannot be realized when pressure and coalition tactics are used. Instead, consultation, rational appeals, and inspiration are more likely to suc - ceed (Hysong, 2008).

When seeking to convince someone or a group (the target of influence), several factors affect the odds of success. Table 11.3 notes the most ideal factors. baa66968_11_c11_309-334.indd 319 6/17/13 11:59 AM CHAPTER 11 Section 11.3 Uses of Power Table 11.3: Factors in successful influence The Target Believes . . . The influence is used in a socially acceptable manner. The person seeking to influence has sufficient position and personal power. The request is in some way desirable. The request meshes with his or her personal values and needs. The tactic(s) have been used in a skillful manner. The person seeking to influence is credible and trustworthy. Source: G. Yukl (2004). Use power effectively. In E. A. Locke (Ed.), Handbook of principles of organizational behavior (pp. 242–247). Malden, MA: Blackwell.

Dependency Part of the use of power involves maintaining it for the future. Dependency helps ensure one’s power base remains intact. Dependency occurs when a person needs a resource, activity, or process that another person or group has control over. For example, an accounting department cannot complete profit-and- loss statements and other documents until total sales and costs are known. The accounting department is dependent on the sales and purchasing department to complete its activities. Every department depends \ on budget to operate. The individual who finalizes the budget and agrees to its allocation holds power as a result. Three elements make a resource subject to dependency: scarcity, importance, and non-substitutability.

The scarcer a resource becomes, the greater will be the dependency associated with that resource. In most organizations, the most obvious scarce resource will be funding. Scarcity can also revolve around a key skill. For instance, manufacturing jobs in the United States sometimes cannot be filled because the workers also need specific computer skills. The situation not only d\ rives up salaries but also cre - ates power for those able to fill the positions, as such individuals are valued by other companies in the marketplace.

The more important a resource becomes, even when the importance of the resource has been overvalued or made to seem more important than it truly is, the greater will be the dependency associated with that resource. For instance, a resource such as engineering skill will be extremely important to an automobile manufacturer. Individuals with those skills hold power based on the company’s dependency on their specific and important knowledge.

When no substitute for a resource exists, power and dependency grow. A simple example is education.

When a certain degree or license constitutes an employment requirement, such as a CPA certification, no substitute exists and the accountant holds greater power in relationships as a result.

Employee Empowerment In many, if not most, organizations, employees hold a wealth of useful knowledge, experience, an\ d internal motivation (Randolph & Sashkin, 2002). Workers are a valuable asset organizational leaders can deploy. Employee empowerment means putting workers in charge of what they do. Empowerment goes beyond the delegation of authority; it grants workers the freedom to achieve objectives and holds them responsible for the outcome (Pearce & Manz, 2005). baa66968_11_c11_309-334.indd 320 6/17/13 11:59 AM CHAPTER 11 Section 11.3 Uses of Power As discussed earlier, it may be tempting to think of power in terms of a zero-sum game, where losing power results from granting it to others. Recent conceptualizations view empowerment as more of a win-win situation in which granting power to others creates personal power for the grantor (Spreitzer, 1996). Managers who have engaged in the process note that empowerment does not resemble an either/or situation. Instead, it is a matter of degree.

As shown in Figure 11.2, at one end of a continuum is an authoritarian situation in which no empowerment exists.

As more power is granted to those of lower rank, the leader ’s decision-making style moves from consultative to participative to democratic. Figure 11.2: Degrees of empowerment Authoritarian Consultative Degree of Empowerment Lowest Highest Participative Democratic As the degree of employee empowerment increases, a manager’s style of decision making moves from authoritarian to democratic.

Participative management, in which workers help direct the organization’s activities, creates empower - ment. Four areas in which employees can regularly participate include decision making, goal setting, problem solving, and planning processes.

Decision-making styles take the forms displayed in Figure 11.2. The more democratic the style of the leader or company, the greater will be the degree of empowerment (Vroom & Yetton, 1973). Goal-setting processes that invite participation create a greater degree of “buy-in” from those who help establish objectives (Locke, 1978). Participative goal setting achieves empowerm\ ent. Problem solving and decision making are closely related. Planning processes and goal setting are also similar. Employee empowerment can help the organization achieve at higher levels (Peters & Waterman, 1982).

In summary, power can be a means or an end. Power becomes an end when it takes the\ form of person - alized power used to capture and hold control. Power can be a means by which objectives are accom - plished, such as when social power is employed. The positive use of social influence, along with employee empowerment programs, can help build a more productive and inspiring company atmosphere. Nega - tive use of social influence inhibits the same outcomes. iStockphoto/Thinkstock Employee empowerment means employees tend to their responsibilities with greater freedom. baa66968_11_c11_309-334.indd 321 6/17/13 11:59 AM CHAPTER 11 Section 11.4 Organizational Politics Comprehension Exercise 1. Which does not create dependency? a. scarcity b. importance c. legitimacy d. nonsubstitutability Answers: 1) c 11.4 Organizational Politics One of the most nebulous topics in the field of organizational behavior is that of organizational politics.

Numerous definitions have been offered, and considerable debate exists as to what exactly the term means. It is tempting to think of politics as activities or behaviors th\ at allow one to “seek power”; how- ever, such a view would have major limitations. Many political activities do\ not shift a power base, nor do they necessarily require the use of power. Further, some authors attempt to distinguish between legiti - mate and illegitimate political behaviors (Drory, 1988). A strong argument can be made that legitimacy is in the eye of the beholder.

Clearly, politics is a fact of organizational life. It can influence your career in negative or positive ways.

Even those who do not wish to actively engage in politics should at the \ least be aware of what takes place. Then, individual responses are possible.

A Model of Organizational Politics One method for understanding the nature of politics involves consideration of organizational means and ends. As noted in the previous section, an end is a goal or objective. Means are methods of reaching those goals and objectives. Based on those two terms, organizational politics may be defined as seeking goals that are in a person’s or group’s self-interests but are not sanctioned or set by the organization, and using means to achieve those goals that are not organizationally approved (Mayes & Allen, 1977). Figure 11.3 expresses this definition visually.

Learning Objective #4:

How can employees recognize and respond to organizational politics? baa66968_11_c11_309-334.indd 322 6/17/13 11:59 AM CHAPTER 11 Section 11.4 Organizational Politics Figure 11.3: Organizational politics Goals or Ends Means or Methods Operational le vel Organizationally Appr oved Organizationally Appr oved Political le vel Pe rsonal or Self-Interest Not Organizationally Approved Organizational politics take place when personal goals or ends are sought using means or methods that are not organizationally approved.

Organizational politics can occur at three separate levels: at the individual level, at the coalition level, and at the level of the organization as a whole. Table 11.4 suggests the potential political goals at each of these three levels. Organizational goals related to dealing with outside organizations do not typically receive a great deal of attention in the field of organizational behavior, but are studied in other contexts such as business strategy. Instead, internal organizational environments that influence individual and coalition goals are areas of research in organizational behavior.

Table 11.4 Political ends or goals Individual Goals Coalition GoalsOrganizational Goals Embarrass/defeat rival Eliminate unpopular employee Defeat rival company Get pay raise (undeserved) Increase group status/power Avoid legal issue Get promotion (undeserved) Increase budget/resources Cover up unethical activities Get desirable work assignment Influence decisions Occupy desirable office space Put other group at a disadvantage Politics at the Individual Level Certain individuals may be more likely than others to become engaged in political activities on the jo\ b.

Four of the most notable personal characteristics related to political engagements are • high Machiavellian personality, • internal locus of control, • high self-monitoring, and • high need for power. Machiavellianism describes the degree to which a person is willing to manipulate the situation and other people to achieve personal self-interest outcomes (Wilson, 1996). An individual exhibiting high Machia - vellianism would be more than willing to seek unsanctioned ends and use unsanctioned means. A person baa66968_11_c11_309-334.indd 323 6/17/13 11:59 AM CHAPTER 11 Section 11.4 Organizational Politics with an internal locus of control believes that he or she controls his or her personal destiny (Rotter, 1966).

Such an individual would be more willing to engage in politics, knowing she/he is in control. High self-monitors are more sensitive to social cues and exhibit higher levels of social conformit\ y. This talent would allow effective engagement in politics (Biberman, 1985). Needs for power are associated with Machiavellianism and clearly connect with political activities, taking the form of power seeking.

Politics at the Level of Coalitions As noted in Table 11.4, coalitions of employees or coalitions of groups of employees sharing the same goals also engage in politics. Both types of coalitions also seek non-sa\ nctioned ends. Coalitions can form in company departments on in other collectives of employees. The tactics\ used by coalitions include the following: • alliances • embrace or demolish • divide and conquer • empire building • growth Alliances form when powerful individuals within a coalition work togethe\ r to help the coalition achieve its goals. Alliances can also result from cooperation with other coalitions or groups. The embrace-or- demolish approach involves a coalition informing the opposition or other groups that those who do not join the cause will be dominated in some way. Divide-and-conquer strategies seek to cause opposition members to argue among themselves and lose power to the coalition as a result. Empire building occurs when a coalition controls scarce information, such as when a group in information technology seeks to maintain tight control over the company’s computer system in order to retain power. Growth tactics include adding members to build the power of the coalition. Each of thes\ e tactics can be deployed to seek the unsanctioned ends noted in Table 11.4.

Politics at the Organizational Level Research suggests that some organizational environments become more conducive to politics at the indi- vidual and coalition levels than others. Company cultures that can be characterized as exhibiting low levels of trust, high levels of role ambiguity, unclear performance evaluation systems, and high pressures for performance are likely to result in greater degrees of politicking (Ferris & Kacmar, 1992; Kacmar et al., 1999). Each of these circumstances creates uncer - tainty and a power vacuum in which a politically minded employee can take advantage.

Political Activities How exactly, do individuals engage in politics? The first distinction to be made should be between someone who wishes to avoid politics and someone who actively engages in organizational politics, also known as a player. Avoiding politics can be accomplished through conformity, coopera - tion, staying away from political situations and persons clearly engaged in politics, and deferring attention to oth- ers. Players, on the other hand, may use a variety of com - mon tactics, including those displayed in Table 11.5. Hemera/Thinkstock Politics occur at the individual, coalition, and organizational levels. baa66968_11_c11_309-334.indd 324 6/17/13 11:59 AM CHAPTER 11 Section 11.4 Organizational Politics Table 11.5: Individual political tactics TacticDescription Acclaiming taking credit for the successes of others Visibility being seen with “all the right people” Ingratiation brown-nosing, flattery, sucking up Exchange trading favors Coalitions leading, and gaining power from, informal groups Pressure using demands, threats, or intimidation Upward Appeal enlisting the support of supervisor or upper management Empire Building keeping and controlling scarce information Domination forcing and winning conflict Impression Management developing others’ perceptions regarding oneself Situation Engineering altering the situation to achieve goals or outcomes Of the tactics noted in Table 11.5, impression management and situation engineering often receive the most attention. The process by which individuals attempt to control perceptions of others represents the degree of impression management they engage in (Leary & Kowalski, 1990). Examples of impres - sion management include the attempt to create the impression that one holds higher levels of personal power and status than is actually the case. By “playing the role,” a person can dress to impress, drive a luxury automobile, and engage in extravagant behaviors such as buying lu\ nch for others at expensive restaurants. A player can decorate and arrange an office in such a manner as to create the impression he or she holds a high-status position and place anyone who enters in a dim\ inished role by making sure the individual cannot approach too closely (blocking the path by use of a desk) or having him or\ her sit at a lower level (raising one’s chair to make sure it is higher than all other chairs in the office). At times, orga - nizational context factors create a climate in which employees believe they need to engage in impression management, even when it is not a personal desire.

Impression management also takes the forms of being visible, flattering those at higher ranks, perform - ing favors for key people, and generally creating the idea that you are a competent individual on the way up (Gardner & Martinko, 1988; Schlenker, 1980). Studies of individuals employing impression manage- ment techniques in job interviews suggest that the tactics do work (Gilmore & Ferris, 1989).

Closely related to impression management, situation engineering involves the control of elements in a situation to create an advantage. For example, an individual who wishes to curry the favor of a top man - ager might find a way to make sure he or she is seated next to that manager at a banquet or luncheon.

Others find ways to “bump into” the right person in the hallway or\ break room. Situation engineering can take the form of making sure the boss sees you with the right crowd or that you are always present when key decisions are made.

Being a player can be viewed as a high risk/high reward career strategy. The risk comes from alienating others and creating rivals. The rewards include faster promotions, bigger pay raises, and other organiza- tional outcomes. baa66968_11_c11_309-334.indd 325 6/17/13 11:59 AM CHAPTER 11 Section 11.4 Organizational Politics Not all employees engage in political tactics. Some people simply want to perform their jobs and then go home for the day. Others try to avoid political tactics by distancing themselves from any change or action and by avoiding blame for any negative event. These workers might be fully or partially aware of the potentially negative personal outcomes associated with politics.

Effects of Politics Politics have an effect on individuals and on the organization as a whole. With regard to individuals, four areas are primarily affected by organizational politics: job satisfaction, the level of anxiety/stress, perfor- mance, and turnover intentions. In general, a politically charged organization results in individuals report- ing lower levels of job satisfaction. Politics are distracting and often cause conflict (Valle & Witt, 2001).

Anxiety and stress can also result from a workplace where a high level of potential conflict exists; workers may feel that they are constantly “on guard” against the actions of others. A high concentration of political events can lead to reduced job performance (Kacmar et al., 1999). Over time, workers may start to look for new jobs when possible, creating a high degree of turnover in the politically charged workplace (Kiewitz et al., 2002).

At the organizational level, political activities of individ - uals and coalitions influence a number of different areas, such as the distribution of resources, task assignments, personnel decisions, policymaking, and the quality of the social environment.

Politics affects the distribution of resources in terms of pay and pay raises for individual employees and budgets for coalitions and departments. Task assignments may be awarded to individuals and coalitions most adept at convincing management they are best suited, even when they are not. Politics also affects hiring, firing, layoffs, reassignments, transfers, and performance appraisals. At higher levels in the organization, politics can affect policy making. Consequently, it should come as no surprise that politically active organizations may not offer the most pleasant social environment. In general, managers should seek to limit political activities t\ o the extent possible. Methods used to hold down the degree of political activity are provided in Table 11.6.

Table 11.6: Methods for reducing organizational politics Do not hire individuals who appear to be players. Encourage transparency in organizational decisions and activities. Conduct frequent financial audits. Establish an open grievance system. Create methods for conflict resolution. Maintain a reward system based on merit. Source: A. Maravalas (2005). How to reduce workplace conflict and stress. Franklin Lakes, NJ: The Career Press; Management Study Guide (2011).\ Ways to reduce politics at the workplace, retrieved November 8, 2011 from http://www.managementstudyguide.com/ways-to-reduce-workplace-politics.htm Thomas Barwick/Stone/Getty Images Politics can negatively affect individual employees and the entire organization. Job satisfaction, the level of stress or anxiety, job performance, and turnover rates can be affected by workplace politics. baa66968_11_c11_309-334.indd 326 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 11 Chapter Summary Persons likely to engage in politics may make greater efforts at ingratiation and impression management during the interviewing process, dropping names and taking credit for accomplishments of organiza- tions that cannot be quickly verified. Transparency is enhanced through open meetings with recorded comments, rather than behind-the-scenes actions of power brokers. Frequent financial audits discourage dishonest accounting practices.

Most management experts agree that reducing workplace politics creates a better organizational environ - ment. Rewarding political activities achieves the opposite effect. Therefore, taking measures to control individual and coalition activities is advised (Kennedy & Magjuka, 2002).

Ethical Concerns The ethical issues associated with organizational politics can be divided into issues that involve means and those that involve ends. Using political means, or tactics that are not organizationally approved, may lead you into a gray ethical or legal area. Although something may be legal, it may still violate ethical standards. For example, an employee may imply that an associate is very ill and\ not able to perform a task in order to improve his personal chances of guiding a task force or receiving a promotion. No law may have been violated, but was the tactic ethical?

Ethical issues also occur when individuals seek ends or goals that are not organizationally sanctioned, such as an undeserved promotion or pay raise. The person may act in a less-than-ethical fashion to achieve such an outcome. Fred Luthans (1988) noted that many times a person who receives a promotion obtains the position by engaging in politics, such as impression management, but that “real managers” focus on subordinate rather than personal well-being.

Employee empowerment may also contain elements of ethical questions. Emp\ owered employees may be able to contribute greater value to the organization. They also may feel more positively toward manage - ment. Is participation an ethical choice? Some would argue that it is, because it seeks to utilize the full potential of each employee and treats the workforce with a greater sense of dignity.

These and other questions will continue to be raised with regard to organizational power and politics.

As an employee, you will decide on a comfort level with all of the issue\ s and activities associated with this dimension of your career.

Chapter Summary Authority is the right to direct with permission to act over lower-level employees. The right to direct includes telling people what to do. Permission to act reflects the decision-making aspect of authority, or the right to decide what to do. The three forms of authority are line, staff, and functional author - ity. Employee responsibility, or accountability, is the obligation to carry out tasks as assigned by the supervisor.

Weber believed authority originates at the top of the organization and flows downward and is derived from three sources: tradition, charisma, and law. Barnard’s acceptance theory of authority argues that authority cannot exist until subordinates have accepted it. This dictates that authority flows from the bottom of the organization upward. The delegation of authority can take place at the individual level or\ at the organization-wide level through decentralization. baa66968_11_c11_309-334.indd 327 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 11 Chapter Summary Power is the ability to influence the behaviors of others using formal a\ nd informal means. Power can be considered as both actual influence and the potential to influence. Personalized power occurs when an individual seeks to dominate and exert power for the purposes of self-in\ terest. Social power represents the ability to marshal the human, informational, and material resources that enable peers, supervisors, and subordinates to accomplish various organizational tasks. A zero-sum game conceptualization sug- gests that the amount of power present in an organization is fixed. The balloon concept of power sug- gests that the total amount of power fluctuates.

Several views regarding the sources of power have been suggested, including legitimate, coercive, reward, referent, and expert power. Boundary spanning happens when an organizational employee goes across an internal or external company boundary and realizes a source of power as a result of translat - ing uncertainty or acting as a go-between. Position power arises from the ability to control the destiny of another person or group, and from control over policy making, information, and status symbols.

Three uses of power are social influence, creating and/or maintaining dependency, and employee empowerment. Social influence refers to all efforts to achieve outcomes by causing others to act in a cer - tain manner or work toward certain goals. These tactics lead to one of three possible outcomes: commit - ment, compliance, or resistance. Influence can be exerted in every direction in an organization: upward, downward, or laterally. Non-coercive social influence tactics include rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, consultation, ingratiation, and personal appeals. Coercive social influence tactics include exchange, coalition, pressure, and legitimizing. Generally speaking, the non-coercive, or softer, tactics achieve better results.

Dependency occurs when a person or group has control over a key resource or process that another requires. Three elements make a resource subject to dependency: scarcity, importance, and non-substi- tutability. An increase in any one raises levels of dependency.

Empowering employees means putting them in charge of what they do. Empowerment goes beyond the delegation of authority; it grants employees freedom to achieve objectives and holds them responsible for the outcome. Participative management creates empowerment. Four areas in which employees can regularly participate include decision making, goal setting, problem solving, and planning processes.

Organizational politics consists of seeking goals that are in a person’s or group’s interest but are not sanctioned or set by the organization, and using means to achieve personal or group interests that are not organizationally approved. The types of individuals that may be more likely to become engaged in political activities on the job are those who exhibit a high Machiavellian personality, an internal locus of control, high self-monitoring, and a high need for power. Coalitions can form in company departments on in other collectives of employees. The tactics used by coalitions inc\ lude alliances, embrace or demol - ish, divide and conquer, empire building, and growth.

A player is a person who is actively engaged in organizational politics. Players use the tactics of acclaim - ing, visibility, ingratiation, exchange, coalitions, pressure, upward appeals, empire building, domination, impression management, and situation engineering.

Four outcomes are affected by organizational politics: job satisfaction, anxiety/stress, performance, and turnover intentions. At the organizational level, political activities by individuals and coalitions influence numerous outcomes and activities, including the distribution of resources, task assignments, personnel decisions, policy making, and the company’s social environment. Most management experts agree that reducing workplace politics creates a better organizational environment. baa66968_11_c11_309-334.indd 328 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 11 Chapter Summary Ethical concerns related to power and politics include judgments about personal ends or go\ als and means or tactics. The same holds true for coalitions. Employee empowerment may be considered an ethical choice due to the potentially positive impact on the workplace environment.

Comprehension Exercise 1. Which individual characteristic has not been matched with the likelihood\ of becoming engaged in political activities on the job? a. high Machiavellian personality b. internal locus of control c. high self-monitoring d. high need for achievement 2. The process by which individuals attempt to control perceptions by others is a. ingratiation. b. upward appeal. c. impression management. d. situation engineering. Answers: 1) d 2) c Case Study: Morales Funeral Homes Benji Morales noticed that nearly every mortuary in his city was run by middle-class Caucasian families. He detected a true opportunity: to create the first Hispanic-owned mortuary company in the area. He attended mortician school and obtained all of the necessary licenses. Then, with investments of several close friends and members of his local diocese, Benji purchased a set of three locations from a retiring family, and Morales Funeral Homes was born, offering tradi - tional funerals, funeral support services, and a crematorium. As an opening managerial move, Benji met individually with every person that had worked for the previous owner. He told each one in a kind but firm voice that he or she was being terminated. Then, he handed each one an application form and invited him or her to apply for a “fresh start.” Of the 42 employees, 31 filled out the application and each one was rehired. Benji knew that several management challenges were on the horizon. Beyond establishing his name in the community, he would need to balance reaching out to the Hispanic community with serving any family wishing for professional service. He wanted to maintain as much of the customer base from the previous owner as possible. He joined the local chamber of commerce and became actively involved in as many groups as his schedule would allow. He suspected, correctly as it turned out, that many of the 31 employees making a fresh start would be somewhat set in their ways. He expected to hear, and heard, “That’s how we’ve always done things” from this group. At first he listened patiently and considerately, seeking to know if positive advice was being offered. Unfortunately, he discovered that some of the procedures were outdated and that corners were being cut in terms of providing the best possible support to grieving families. For example, families were being told that wakes and visitations must end by 8:00 p.m., and that rooms needed to be cleared by 8:30. He wanted to offer greater flexibility to families, especially when persons had trav - eled long distances to attend. Benji knew that the hours benefited employees wanting to get home earlier rather than his clients. (continued) baa66968_11_c11_309-334.indd 329 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 11 Review Questions Review Questions 1. What are the three types of authority in organizations? 2. What are the three sources of authority from the top-down perspective? 3. Explain the acceptance theory of authority. 4. What are personalized power and social power? 5. What sources of power exist in organizations? 6. Define organizational politics and name the three levels on which it occurs. 7. What types of individual characteristics have been associated with polit\ ical activities? 8. What are the primary individual political tactics used in organizations? 9. What does organizational politics affect on the individual and company-wide levels? 10. What ethical concerns are associated with organizational politics? Answers to Review Questions 1. What are the three types of authority in organizations? The three types of authority are line authority, staff authority, and functional authority. Line authority is direct, formal authority, as indicated by the horizontal lines of an organization chart. Staff authority con - sists of the right to advise, or give advice. Functional authority is the right to direct but not to discipline. 2. What are the three sources of authority from the top-down perspective? Authority is derived from three sources: tradition, charisma, and law. Traditional authority results from the rule of kings, tribal chiefs, and the authority of the church. Charismatic authority arises from a “gift of grace,” such as when a dynamic military leader inspires and guides troops. The legal/ rational basis of authority results from an employment contract. It was not long until Benji felt his authority was being challenged by some of the members of the staff. Some were simply ignoring his directives. Others began to argue with him in front of coworkers, although never in front of grieving families. Benji therefore decided to hold an employee-only meeting to clear the air. Employee complaints ranged from objections to the new, later hours to concerns that the company was losing its “culture.” Some complained that too much attention was placed on attracting Hispanic families, when only a limited number of employees (five) spoke fluent Spanish. This was not surprising, given the ethnic origins of the employees of the previous owners. Benji told the group that he would carefully look into their concerns and report back. A turning point soon took place. One of Benji’s new employees—one of the five who spoke Spanish—came into Benji’s office. The employee complained that he had become increasingly uncomfortable with the other workers. They excluded him from any types of gatherings or conversations and constantly referred to him as “the new guy,” even though the employee had 11 years of experience at another funeral home. Benji asked if the other new employees felt the same way. The employee said, “Yes,” and that some had already thought about looking for other jobs. Benji knew it was time to take action. The future of his new venture was at stake. Case Questions 1. Do you agree with Benji’s decision to retain employees from the previous owner? Why or why not? 2. Which model of authority best represents Benji’s situation, top-down or bottom-up? 3. What sources of power are available to Benji with his staff? With the local community? 4. What types of politics were being played at Morales Funeral Homes? 5. How should Benji handle this situation? What are the short- and long-term implications of the course that you would prescribe? Case Study: Morales Funeral Homes (continued) baa66968_11_c11_309-334.indd 330 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 11 Review Questions 3. Explain the acceptance theory of authority. The acceptance theory of authority argues that authority cannot exist until it has been accepted by subordinates, which means that authority is accepted when individuals understand the nature of the authority, believe the use of authority is consistent with the purposes of the organization, believe authority is being used in ways that are compatible with their personal interests, and are able to comply. 4. What are personalized power and social power? Personalized power occurs when an individual seeks to dominate and exert power for purposes of self- interest. Social power represents the ability to marshal the human, informational, and material resources that enable peers, supervisors, and subordinates to accomplish various organizational tasks. 5. What sources of power exist in organizations? Legitimate power originates from organizational rank and the formal authority that accompanies that rank. Coercive power depends on the ability to punish and instill fear in others. Reward power grows from the ability to create favorable outcomes for others. Referent power results from the ability to generate interpersonal influence. Expert power creates influence based on a special skill, knowledge, or degree of expertise. Boundary spanning occurs when an organizational employee moves across an inter - nal or external company boundary and realizes a source of power as a result. Position power arises from the ability to control the destiny of another person or group. Power can be related to closeness to pro - duction. When a person has control over the policy-making process, power exists. A key advisor working behind the scenes may not hold organizational rank but still possesses considerable power. Control over budgeting results in power. The same holds true for information power, which comes from access to and control over information. Networking or connection power results from sets of relationships with others inside and outside of the organization. Control over status symbols may generate power. 6. Define organizational politics and name the three levels on which it occurs. Organizational politics consists of seeking goals that are in a person’s or group’s self-interests but are not sanctioned or set by the organization and using means to achieve a person’s or group’s self-interests that are not organizationally approved. It occurs at the individual, coalition, and organization-wide levels. 7. What types of individual characteristics have been associated with political activities? The most notable personal characteristics related to political engagements are high Machiavellian per - sonality, internal locus of control, high self-monitoring, and high need for power. 8. What are the primary individual political tactics used in organizations? The individual tactics include acclaiming, visibility, ingratiation, exchange, coalitions, pressure, upward appeal, empire building, domination, impression management, and situation engineering. 9. What does organizational politics affect on the individual and company-wide levels? At the individual level, four areas are primarily affected by organizational politics: job satisfaction, the level of anxiety/stress, performance, and turnover intentions. At the organizational level, politi - cal activities by individuals and coalitions influence a number of different areas, such as the distribu - tion of resources, task assignments, personnel decisions, policymaking, and the quality of the social environment.

10.

What ethical concerns are associated with organizational politics? The ethical issues associated with organizational politics can be divided into issues that involve means and those that involve ends. Using political means, or tactics that are not organizationally approved, can lead you into a gray ethical and legal area. Ethical issues also occur when individuals seek ends or goals that are not organizationally sanctioned, such as an undeserved promotion or pay raise. baa66968_11_c11_309-334.indd 331 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 11 Key Terms Analytical Exercises 1. Explain the differences between the top-down and bottom-up views of authority in the follo\ w - ing circumstances: • military chain of command • church authority over parishioners • authority over workers in a volunteer organization • authority of the night manager at a McDonald’s over employees 2. Using the sources of power identified in Figure 11.1, explain how each applies to the following conditions: • actual influence versus the potential to influence • personalized power versus social power • power as a zero-sum game versus the balloon concept 3. Describe how the non-coercive and coercive power tactics identified in Table 11.2 would apply to the following circumstances: • a manager trying to convince employees to take a pay reduction to keep the company from outsourcing or offshoring • union–management negotiations • an employee with a job offer from another company seeking a pay raise in order to stay • a coalition trying to rid the organization of a “bad apple” coworker who is destroying morale 4. Explain the relationships among social influence, dependency, and employee empowerment as they relate to the definition of organizational politics. 5. Explain how an individual employee would use the political tactics ident\ ified in Table 11.5 in the following circumstances. (Explain why a tactic would not apply if it does not.) • a salesperson seeking promotion to sales manager • an information technology employee trying to increase the department’s budget to improve the company’s security system • a human resource manager seeking promotion to a top management position • a purchasing department employee trying to get a manager to change vendors fo\ r raw materials to one where the employee’s friend works Key Terms boundary spanning A situation in which an orga- nizational employee goes across an internal or external company boundary and realizes a source of power. coercive power Power that depends on the ability to punish and instill fear. delegation When a manager grants authority to a single subordinate. dependency What occurs when a person or group has control over a key resource or process that another requires. employee empowerment Putting workers in charge of what they do. expert power Power that creates influence based on a special skill, knowledge, or degree of expertise. impression management The process by which individuals attempt to control perceptions of others. legitimate power Power that originates from organizational rank and the formal authority that accompanies that rank. baa66968_11_c11_309-334.indd 332 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 11 Key Terms organizational politics Seeking goals that are in a person’s or group’s interests but are not sanc- tioned or set by the organization and using means to achieve personal or group interests that are not organizationally approved. personalized power What occurs when an individual seeks to dominate and exert power for self-interest reasons. player A person who is actively engaged in orga- nizational politics. position power The ability to control the destiny of another person or group. power The ability to influence behaviors of others using formal and informal means. referent power Power that results from the ability to generate interpersonal influence. reward power Power that grows from the ability to create favorable outcomes for others. situation engineering The control of elements in a situation to create a personal advantage. social influence All efforts to achieve outcomes by causing others to act in a certain manner or work toward certain goals. social power The ability to marshal the human, informational, and material resources that enable peers, supervisors, and subordinates to accom- plish various organizational tasks. baa66968_11_c11_309-334.indd 333 6/17/13 12:00 PM CHAPTER 11 baa66968_11_c11_309-334.indd 334 6/17/13 12:00 PM