3 Questions 200 Words Each APA Writing & References & TURNITIN Required DUE IN 1 HOUR

CR IT IC A L T H EO RY, P O ST M ODER N , A N D F EM IN IS T P ER SP EC T IV ES

in

NEW ER A PPRO ACH ES T O A D ULT L E A RN IN G

fr o m

Le arn in g in A dult h ood: A C om pre hensiv e G uid e

Vie w a rtic le o n

Cre do

Adult le arn in g in N orth A m eric a h as b e en m ost in flu e nce d b y p sych o lo gy, w it h it s fo cu s o n in div id ual le arn e rs , th e ir

gro w th a nd d e ve lo pm ent, a nd th e ir le arn in g in a nd o ut o f fo rm al s e ttin gs. In th is c h apte r, w he re w e a ppro ach a dult

le arn in g fr o m a c rit ic a l, p o w er r e la tio ns fr a m ew ork , th e c a m era m ove s fr o m th e in div id ual le arn e r to a n a naly sis o f

th e c o nte xt w he re le arn in g ta ke s p la ce . C onsid e re d a re th e la rg e r s yste m s in s o cie ty , th e c u lt u re a nd in stit u tio ns

th at s h ape le arn in g, a nd th e s tr u ctu ra l a nd h is to ric a l c o ndit io ns fr a m in g, in de ed d e fin in g, th e le arn in g e ve nt.

The le arn in g p ro ce ss it s e lf is le ss o f a fo cu s th an th e e co no m ic , h is to ric a l, a nd s o cio cu lt u ra l c o nte xt in w hic h th at

le arn in g ta ke s p la ce . Q ue stio nin g a nd c rit iq uin g ta ke n-fo r-g ra nte d w orld vie w s, s tr u ctu re s, a nd in stit u tio ns o f s o cie ty

are th e fir s t s te ps in c h angin g o ppre ssiv e a nd n o ne m ancip ato ry p ra ctic e s. F u rth e r, o ur a ssu m ptio ns a bo ut th e

natu re o f k n o w le dge — in clu din g w hat c o unts a s k n o w le dge , w he re it is lo ca te d (in th e in div id ual o r in s o cie ty ), a nd

ho w it is a cq uir e d— are a ls o c h alle nge d. T he se q ue stio ns a bo ut k n o w le dge a re p artic u la rly im po rta nt fo r a dult

educa to rs b e ca use p re su m ably th e c o nstr u ctio n a nd a cq uis it io n o f k n o w le dge a re in he re nt in th e te ach in g-

le arn in g tr a nsa ctio n. B eca use th is a ppro ach c rit iq ue s a nd r a is e s q ue stio ns a bo ut th e a ssu m ptio ns w e m ake a bo ut

th e w orld a ro und u s, in clu din g th o se u nde rly in g th e p ra ctic e o f a dult e duca tio n, th is s ta nce is o fte n c a lle d

crit ic a l

,a s

in

crit ic a l a dult e duca tio n

.

A n um be r o f s p e cif ic p hilo so phic a l a nd th e ore tic a l o rie nta tio ns in fo rm th is a ppro ach to a dult e duca tio n a nd a dult

le arn in g, in clu din g M arx is m , c rit ic a l th e ory , c rit ic a l m ult ic u lt u ra lis m , c rit ic a l r a ce th e ory , p o stc o lo nia lis m , q ue er th e ory ,

po stm ode rn is m , a nd fe m in is t th e ory . A lt h o ugh s o m e a dult e duca to rs a re c le arly id e ntif ie d w it h a s p e cif ic

orie nta tio n, a n um be r o f o th e rs d ra w fr o m s e ve ra l th e ore tic a l p e rs p e ctiv e s. H art's (19 92) a naly sis o f w ork a nd

le arn in g, fo r e xa m ple , is a nch o re d in M arx is m , c rit ic a l th e ory , a nd fe m in is t th e ory . T is d e ll (19 98) d ra w s fr o m

mult ic u lt u ra lis m , fe m in is t th e ory , a nd p o sts tr u ctu ra lis m in p ro po sin g a m ode l o f fe m in is t p e dago gy fo r a dult

educa tio n c la ssro om s. H ill (2 0 04) c o m bin e s c rit ic a l th e ory a nd p o stm ode rn is m in h is a naly sis o f a ctiv is m a ro und

se xu al o rie nta tio n a nd g e nde r id e ntit y . G ra ce (19 96a, 19 97) m ain ta in s th at c rit ic a l th e ory , fe m in is m , a nd p o st-

mode rn is m in fo rm o ne a no th e r to th e e xte nt th at c o m mon th e m es o r a ssu m ptio ns c a n b e d e riv e d to g uid e a dult

le arn in g p ra ctic e s. F u rth e r, m any e duca to rs w rit in g fr o m s e ve ra l o f th e se p e rs p e ctiv e s c la im in de bte dne ss to P aulo

Fre ir e 's (19 70 ) w ork . T he n o te d B la ck fe m in is t s ch o la r b e ll h o oks (19 94, p . 4 6), fo r e xa m ple , s p e aks o f c o m in g to

Fre ir e 's w ork “ ju st a t th at m om ent in m y lif e w he n I w as b e gin nin g to q ue stio n d e eply a nd p ro fo undly th e p o lit ic s o f

do m in atio n, th e im pact o f r a cis m , s e xis m , c la ss e xp lo it a tio n, a nd th e k in d o f d o m estic c o lo niz a tio n th at ta ke s p la ce

in th e U nit e d S ta te s… . P aulo w as o ne o f th e th in ke rs w ho se w ork g ave m e a la nguage . H e m ade m e th in k d e eply

abo ut th e c o nstr u ctio n o f a n id e ntit y in r e sis ta nce .”

This c h apte r fir s t p ro vid e s a b rie f o ve rv ie w o f s o m e o f th e m ajo r th e m es, c o nce pts , a nd te rm s th at c h ara cte riz e

pe rs p e ctiv e s d e riv e d fr o m M arx is t th e ory , c rit ic a l th e ory , m ult ic u lt u ra lis m , c rit ic a l r a ce th e ory , p o stm ode rn is m , a nd

fe m in is t th e ory . T he c h apte r th e n fo cu se s o n th re e p e rs p e ctiv e s w he re c o ntr ib utio ns to a dult le arn in g h ave b e en

most v is ib le — crit ic a l th e ory , p o stm ode rn is m , a nd fe m in is t th e ory /p e dago gy.

CO M MON T H EM ES

An u nde rs ta ndin g o f a dult le arn in g a nd a dult e duca tio n fr o m th e p e rs p e ctiv e o f c rit iq ue a nd e m po w erm ent

mandate s s o m e fa m ilia rit y w it h b asic c o nce pts a nd te rm in o lo gy. In th is s e ctio n, w e d is cu ss th re e th e m es th at

ch ara cte riz e th is p e rs p e ctiv e : r a ce , c la ss, a nd g e nde r, w hic h fig ure p ro m in e ntly in a c rit ic a l a naly sis o f a dult

le arn in g; p o w er a nd o ppre ssio n, b o th k e y c o nce pts ; a nd k n o w le dge a nd tr u th , w hic h a re c o nstr u e d in d if fe re nt

ways d e pe ndin g o n th e s ch o ol o f th o ught. T he se th e m es a re , o f c o urs e , h ig hly in te rre la te d; it is n o t p o ssib le to

ta lk a bo ut r a cis m , c la ssis m , s e xis m , a nd o th e r “ is m s” w it h o ut r e fe re nce to p o w er a nd o ppre ssio n, n o r c a n p o w er

be c o nsid e re d a part fr o m is su e s s u rro undin g k n o w le dge c o nstr u ctio n. T he se th e m es a re b ro ught to ge th e r la te r in

th e c h apte r in th e d is cu ssio ns o f c rit ic a l th e ory , p o stm ode rn is m , a nd fe m in is t th e ory 's c o ntr ib utio ns to a dult

h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?

u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /c ritic a l_ th eory _ postm odern _and_fe m in is t_ pers p ectiv e s/0 le arn in g.

RACE, C LA SS, A N D G EN DER

RACE, C LA SS, A N D G EN DER

Am ong th e c h ara cte ris tic s o f p e ople th at p ro vo ke p re ju dic e a nd o ppre ssio n in A m eric a n s o cie ty , r a ce , c la ss, a nd

ge nde r a re th re e o f th e m ost p o w erfu l a nd p e rv a siv e . T he th e ore tic a l o rie nta tio ns d is cu sse d in th is c h apte r p la ce

ra ce , c la ss, a nd g e nde r a nd th e ir in te ra ctio ns a t c e nte r s ta ge in a naly zin g th e p o w er d yn am ic s a nd th e d is tr ib utio n

of r e so urc e s in a p artic u la r c o nte xt. T he c o nte xt c a n b e d e fin e d a s b ro adly a s s o cie ty , a s a n in stit u tio n in s o cie ty ,

or e ve n a s a s p e cif ic a dult e duca tio n s e ttin g. T he p urp o se in m ovin g th e se is su e s to th e fo re gro und a nd a naly zin g

syste m s o f p o w er a nd o ppre ssio n, e sp e cia lly a s th e y m anif e st th e m se lv e s in a dult e duca tio n, is to b rin g a bo ut a

more in fo rm ed a nd d e m ocra tic p ra ctic e .

Race

While d is cu ssio ns o f r a ce fo cu s p rim arily o n A fr ic a n A m eric a ns, it s h o uld b e n o te d th at p e ople o th e r th an W hit e

Euro pe an A m eric a ns a re a ls o m arg in aliz e d in o ur s o cie ty . N ativ e A m eric a ns, H is p anic s, a nd A sia n A m eric a ns a ll

must g ra pple w it h d is crim in atio n a nd o ppre ssio n b ase d s o le ly o n th e ir n o t b e in g p art o f th e W hit e m ain str e am (L e e

& J o hnso n-B aile y, 2 0 04). C olin a nd P re cip hs (19 91, p . 6 2) d e fin e r a cis m a s “ c o nscio us o r u nco nscio us, a nd

exp re sse d in a ctio ns o r a ttit u de s in it ia te d b y in div id uals , g ro ups, o r in stit u tio ns th at tr e at h um an b e in gs u nju stly

be ca use o f th e ir s kin p ig m enta tio n… . R acis m is e xp re sse d in a ttit u de s, b e havio rs , a nd in stit u tio ns.” T he s o cia l

im pact o f r a cis m (a nd s e xis m ) in A m eric a in e co no m ic te rm s is d is tu rb in g. T he m edia n in co m e o f W hit e w ork e rs in

20 03 w as $ 24 ,3 18 c o m pare d to $ 19 ,7 9 4 fo r B la cks a nd $ 17 ,9 74 fo r H is p anic s (U .S . B ure au o f th e C ensu s, 2 0 04a). It

is a ls o c o m mon k n o w le dge th at w om en o f c o lo r a re o ve rre pre se nte d in lo w -s kill, lo w -p aid jo bs, s u ch a s h e alt h a id e

and p riv a te h o use ho ld w ork e r.

That th e se d is p arit ie s b ase d o n r a ce a ls o e xis t in th e p ra ctic e o f a dult e duca tio n is n o s u rp ris e . P artic ip atio n

patte rn s a lo ne h ave c o nsis te ntly b o rn e o ut th e fa ct th at B la cks a nd o th e r p e ople o f c o lo r a re u nde rre pre se nte d in

all ty p e s o f a dult e duca tio n. A m stu tz (19 94) h as s u gge ste d th re e r e aso ns w hy r a cis m (a nd s e xis m ) p e rs is t in a dult

educa tio n d e sp it e w ell- in te ntio ne d e ffo rts . F ir s t, s h e s e es a d is cre pancy b e tw een th e r h e to ric o f a dult e duca tio n

th at s p e aks o f e m po w erm ent a nd e qual a cce ss, a nd a ctu al b e havio rs th at m ore o fte n th an n o t a re

“u ne m po w erin g” a nd “ tr a dit io nal.” S eco nd, m ost a dult e duca to rs a re th e m se lv e s W hit e a nd m id dle -c la ss, h ave h ad

lit tle in te ra ctio n w it h m in o rit ie s o f a ny k in d, a nd h ave fa ile d to e xa m in e th e ir o w n b e lie fs , a ssu m ptio ns, p re ju dic e s,

and b ia se s. T hir d , s h e b e lie ve s th at m ost a dult e duca to rs h ave a n u nw arra nte d fa it h in in stit u tio ns, b e lie vin g “ th at

in stit u tio nal p ra ctic e s a re w ell m eanin g a nd th at th e p o lic ie s u nde r w hic h th e ir in stit u tio ns o pe ra te a re n o t b ia se d”

(p . 4 3).

The lit e ra tu re o n m ult ic u lt u ra lis m h as h e lp e d b rin g th e is su e s o f r a ce a nd c u lt u ra l d iv e rs it y to th e a tte ntio n o f

educa to rs a t a ll le ve ls . E ve n m ore r e ce ntly ,

crit ic a l m ult ic u lt u ra lis m

h as e m erg e d a s “ a te rm u se d to d is tin guis h

fo rm s o f m ult ic u lt u ra l e duca tio n th at s p e cif ic a lly fo cu s o n c h alle ngin g p o w er r e la tio ns b ase d o n

so cia l s tr u ctu re s

o f

ra ce o r c u lt u re , g e nde r, c la ss, e tc . a nd o n c h alle ngin g th e ‘is m s’ th at r e su lt fr o m th o se p o w er r e la tio ns, a s in

ra

cis m

,o r s e x

is m

” (T is d e ll, 2 0 05a, p . 16 3; it a lic s in o rig in al) .

Mult ic u lt u ra lis m a ppe ars to b e s yn o nym ous w it h w hat G uy (2 0 05) c a lls “ c u lt u ra lly r e le va nt a dult e duca tio n.” T his

educa tio nal a ppro ach a tte m pts to “ in co rp o ra te le arn e rs ’ c u lt u ra l p ra ctic e s a nd v a lu e s in th e te ach in g-le arn in g

pro ce ss” (G uy, 2 0 05, p . 18 0 ). C ult u ra lly r e le va nt a dult e duca tio n s e es th e m ic ro s o cia l le ve l o f e duca tio nal p ra ctic e

as it r e la te s to “ b ro ade r s o cio -c u lt u ra l a nd s o cie ta l is su e s o f p o w er a nd d if fe re nce ” (p . 18 3).

Fo r s o m e, m ult ic u lt u ra lis m a nd e ve n c rit ic a l m ult ic u lt u ra lis m d o n o t g o fa r e no ugh in a ddre ssin g th e r a cis m th at

pe rm eate s o ur s o cie ty . C rit ic a l r a ce th e ory (C RT) ta ke s a m ore r a dic a l p e rs p e ctiv e in th at it tr ie s n o t o nly “ to

unde rs ta nd th e r e la tio nsh ip s a m ong r a ce , r a cis m , p o w er, p riv ile ge , a nd o ppre ssio n, b ut to c h alle nge a nd tr a nsfo rm

th e se r e la tio nsh ip s” (Ia nin ska , W rig ht, & R occo , 2 0 03, p . 17 6 ). D ra w in g fr o m a n um be r o f d is cip lin e s, C RT

ackn o w le dge s th at r a ce , a s o cia lly c o nstr u cte d c a te go ry , is “ a fu ndam enta l o rg aniz in g p rin cip le in U .S . s o cie ty ,” th at

ra cis m is s yste m ic , a nd th at “ p e ople o f c o lo r h ave a u niq ue v o ic e in r a cia l m atte rs b e ca use o f th e ir s o cia l p o sit io n

and e xp e rie nce s w it h o ppre ssio n” (J e ris & M cD ow ell, 2 0 03, p p. 18 8-18 9 ).

h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?

u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /c ritic a l_ th eory _ postm odern _and_fe m in is t_ pers p ectiv e s/0 Ross-G ord o n (19 94) fo cu se s o n th e in te rs e ctio ns o f r a ce , c la ss, a nd g e nde r in r e vie w in g th e m ult ic u lt u ra l a nd

crit ic a l p e dago gy lit e ra tu re in o rd e r to e xtr a ct e le m ents o f a m ult ic u lt u ra l p e dago gy fo r a dult s . W hat th is w id e r a nge

of lit e ra tu re h as in c o m mon, R oss-G ord o n b e lie ve s, is “ a n e m phasis o n d e co nstr u ctio n o f h e ge m onic k n o w le dge

and s tr u ctu re s, g o als fo r e m ancip atio n o f le arn e rs , a nd d e nia l o f c la im s to p o lit ic a l n e utr a lit y fo r … a ny fo rm o f

educa tio n” (p . 3 15 ). F in ally , s h e d e ve lo ps a c o m po sit e o f te n p rin cip le s fo r te ach in g a nd le arn in g, in clu din g s h arin g

po w er w it h le arn e rs , fo ste rin g c o lla bo ra tio n, c h alle ngin g a ll fo rm s o f o ppre ssio n, a nd p la cin g th e c u lt u re o f th e

stu de nt in a c e ntr a l r a th e r th an a m arg in al p o sit io n. W it h r e gard to r a cis m in p artic u la r, s h e fin ds th e

“A fr o ce ntr ic /a ntir a cis t d is co urs e … u niq ue in it s c o nce rn w it h tw o c o nce pts . O ne is th e n o tio n o f c e ntr ic it y , th at th e

stu de nt m ust fin d h is o r h e r c u lt u re to b e c e ntr a l (n o t m arg in al) w it h in th e k n o w le dge s h are d. S eco nd is th e

em phasis o n le arn in g b y te ach e rs (o r u n-le arn in g) th ro ugh … p ro gra m s th at e duca te th e m to r e co gniz e a nd

ch alle nge r a cis m , in clu din g th e ir o w n” (p . 3 16 ).

In a n a ppro ach s im ila r to R oss-G ord o n's , M cD ow ell (2 0 03) id e ntif ie d e le ve n th e m es fr o m th e lit e ra tu re o n a ntir a cis t

pra xis th at a dult e duca to rs c a n u se to in fo rm th e ir o w n a ntir a cis t o rie nta tio n. S om e o f h e r s u gge stio ns a re a s

fo llo w s: b e co m in g k n o w le dge able a bo ut r a ce a nd r a cis m , a tte ndin g to r a cia l a w are ne ss, in te rro gatin g W hit e p o w er,

in te gra tin g r a cia lly d iv e rs e v o ic e s in to c u rric u la , a nd a cq uir in g s kills to c h alle nge r a cis m .

As r a ce a nd e th nic it y s h ape le arn in g tr a nsa ctio ns in e duca tio nal s e ttin gs, s o to o in th e w ork p la ce . R oss-G ord o n e t

al. (2 0 05) r e vie w ed th e w ork -r e la te d le arn in g lit e ra tu re fr o m th e th re e d o m ain s o f c o ntin uin g p ro fe ssio nal

educa tio n, h um an r e so urc e d e ve lo pm ent, a nd w ork fo rc e d e ve lo pm ent w it h r e gard to c o nce rn s a bo ut r a ce in e ach

do m ain . W hile th e ir fin din gs v a rie d s o m ew hat a cro ss d o m ain s, th e y w ere a ble to d ra w th e fo llo w in g c o nclu sio ns:

1 .

In stit u tio naliz e d d is crim in atio n a ffe cts in div id ual c a re ers a nd p ro gra m d ir e ctio ns; (p . 3 79 )

2 .

Pers o nal d e te rm in atio n a nd r e so urc e fu ln e ss, p e er a nd fa m ily s u ppo rt, m ento rs , a nd s o cia l n e tw ork s a re

esp e cia lly im po rta nt to th e c a re er a dva nce m ent o f r a cia liz e d m in o rit ie s … ; (p . 3 80 )

3 .

Whit e s a re g e ne ra lly le ss a w are o f m anif e sta tio ns o f r a cis m a nd b e ne fit s o f W hit e p riv ile ge (H RD a nd C PE)

and in s o m e c a se s d e m onstr a te r e sis ta nce to e xa m in in g th e se (C PE)… . (p . 3 80 )

4 .

A p o in t o f in te rc o nne ctio n b e tw een H RD a nd C PE is s e en in th e d e gre e to w hic h lit e ra tu re fo cu se d o n

“c u lt u ra l c o m pe te nce ” w as fo cu se d o n th e “ h e lp in g” p ro fe ssio ns a nd o rg aniz a tio ns— th o se th at r e quir e

se nsit iv it y to c lie nt p e rs p e ctiv e s in o rd e r to a cco m plis h th e ir “ h e lp in g” g o als /m is sio ns (p . 3 80 ).

Thus r a ce n o t o nly p e rm eate s th e w ork p la ce b ut a ll o th e r a sp e cts o f o ur s o cie ty a s w ell, in clu din g a dult e duca tio n

pra ctic e . In te rtw in e d w it h r a ce is s o cio eco no m ic c la ss.

Cla ss

Whe n s o cia l c la ss is th e fo cu s, th e a im o f th e a naly sis a nd s u bse que nt a ctio n is to b rin g a bo ut a c h ange fr o m a

ca pit a lis t p o lit ic a l e co no m y to a c la ssle ss s o cia lis t fo rm o f g o ve rn m ent. D ra w in g la rg e ly fr o m M arx is m , a c la ss-b ase d

analy sis e m phasiz e s c la ss s tr u ggle , a lie natio n, a nd r e vo lu tio nary a ctiv it y . W ork e rs fin d n o c o nne ctio n o r fu lf illm ent

th ro ugh w ork ; r a th e r, th e in div id ual w ork e r is b ut a c o g in th e p ro ductio n o f g o ods a nd s e rv ic e s, a lie nate d fr o m th e

se lf a s w ell a s o th e rs a nd s o cie ty in g e ne ra l. It w ill b e o nly th ro ugh a r e vo lu tio nary m ove m ent th at th is r e la tio nsh ip

be tw een th e p e rs o n a nd h is o r h e r w orld c a n b e c h ange d. F re ir e (19 70 , p . 6 1) p o in ts o ut th at th o se w ho a re

alie nate d a re c o nsid e re d “ m arg in al,” “ a p ath o lo gy o f th e h e alt h y s o cie ty … . T he tr u th is , h o w eve r, th at th e

oppre sse d a re n o t ‘m arg in als ,’ a re n o t m en [s ic ] liv in g ‘o uts id e ’ s o cie ty . T he y h ave a lw ays b e en ‘in sid e ’— in sid e th e

str u ctu re w hic h m ade th e m ‘b e in gs fo r o th e rs .’ T he s o lu tio n is n o t to ‘in te gra te ’ th e m in to th e s tr u ctu re o f

oppre ssio n, b ut to tr a nsfo rm th at s tr u ctu re s o th at th e y c a n b e co m e ‘b e in gs fo r th e m se lv e s.’” T hus a s o cia lis t

Marx is t fr a m ew ork fo r a dult e duca tio n w ould h ave , Y oungm an (19 86 , p . 19 7) s u gge sts , th e d ual a im s o f c h alle ngin g

“th e id e olo gy a nd c u lt u re o f c a pit a lis m ” a nd d e ve lo pin g “ th e g e ne ra l k n o w le dge a nd te ch nic a l e xp e rtis e

ne ce ssa ry to r e org anis e p ro ductio n a nd s o cie ty in a fu lly d e m ocra tic w ay.”

Perh aps d ue in p art to th e c o lla pse o f E aste rn E uro pe an c o m munis t a nd s o cia lis t s ta te s, s tr ic t M arx is t a naly sis is n o

lo nge r in fa sh io n. N eve rth e le ss, s o m e a dult e duca to rs a rg ue fo r it s c o ntin ue d r e le va nce (C ollin s & C olla rd , 19 95;

h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?

u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /c ritic a l_ th eory _ postm odern _and_fe m in is t_ pers p ectiv e s/0 Sch ie d, 19 93, 19 94; Y oungm an, 19 96, 2 0 00). S ch ie d (19 94) a ckn o w le dge s th at fe m in is t a nd p o st-m ode rn th o ught

have q ue stio ne d m akin g th e w ork in g c la ss “ th e p riv ile ge d a ge nt o f c h ange ” (p . 4 45); in de ed, “ th e p rim acy o f s o cia l

cla ss h as b e en s tr o ngly c h alle nge d b y n o tio ns o f g e nde r, r a ce , a nd c o lo nia lis m .” In s p it e o f th is , “ th e e co no m ic

dis lo ca tio n a nd th e e xp lo it a tio n o f w ork in g p e ople b y in te rn atio nal c o rp o ra tio ns is a r e alit y . It is n o t m ere ly

co nstr u cte d o r r e ad o r p ro duce d b y o ur th e ore tic a l p e rs p e ctiv e . T his e xp lo it a tio n is r e al” (p . 4 46). M arx is t a naly sis ,

if “ c o nce iv e d a s a m ora l s ta nce … p ro vid e s a dult e duca to rs a w ay to p la ce th e ir p ra ctic e in s o m e k in d o f s o cia l

co nte xt” (p . 4 46). C ollin s a nd C olla rd (19 95) c o ncu r w it h S ch ie d. A c la ss-b ase d e co no m ic a naly sis is p artic u la rly

re le va nt in to day's w orld , th e y s a y, w it h th e “ re -e m erg e nce o f w hat a m ounts to c la ss w arfa re in c o nne ctio n w it h

glo bal e co no m ic r e str u ctu rin g” (p . 7 5). It is tim e “ to m ake c o nne ctio ns b e tw een th e h o m e, th e w ork p la ce , a nd th e

co m munit y — be tw een c la ss a nd c o nce rn s a ro und c u lt u re , g e nde r a nd r a ce ” (p . 7 5). T his is in fa ct w hat H art (19 92,

19 95) d o es in h e r M arx is t-fe m in is t a naly sis o f w ork , g e nde r, a nd c la ss. Y oungm an (19 96, p . 7 ) a gre es, c a llin g fo r a

ro bust p o lit ic a l- e co no m ic a naly sis : “ T he c e ntr a l is su e fo r a tr a nsfo rm ativ e p o lit ic a l e co no m y o f a dult e duca tio n is

ho w to a de quate ly c o nce ptu aliz e th e in te rc o nne ctio ns b e tw een th e fo ur m ain s yste m s o f d o m in atio n in s o cie ty ,

nam ely , th o se d e riv in g fr o m im pe ria lis m , c la ss, g e nde r, a nd r a ce -e th nic it y . It is c le ar th at w hile n o ne o f th e se

syste m s is r e ducib le to a no th e r (fo r e xa m ple , th e b asis o f w om en's o ppre ssio n is d if fe re nt fr o m th at o f c la ss

oppre ssio n), th e y d o a ffe ct e ach o th e r (s o th at, fo r e xa m ple , w om en's o ppre ssio n h as a c la ss d im ensio n).” H ols t

(2 0 02), w ho a ls o a rg ue s fo r a r e asse ssm ent o f th e M arx is t tr a dit io n, is c o nce rn e d th at n e w s o cia l m ove m ents

aro und fe m in is m , a ntir a cis m , a nd s e xu al a nd e nvir o nm enta l is su e s m ig ht e clip se th e w ork in g-c la ss s tr u ggle a gain st

ca pit a lis m .

Gender

While m ult ic u lt u ra lis ts , M arx is ts , a nd c rit ic a l th e oris ts h ave b ro ught in e quit ie s b ase d o n e co no m ic s a nd c la ss to a dult

educa to rs ’ a tte ntio n, fe m in is t s ch o la rs h ave p la ce d g e nde r, a nd g e nde r a s it in te rs e cts w it h r a ce a nd c la ss, a t th e

fo re fr o nt o f a c rit ic a l a naly sis . A lt h o ugh a ll v e rs io ns o f fe m in is t th e ory a re c o nce rn e d w it h th e s ta tu s o f w om en

world w id e , th e oris ts d if fe r a m ong th e m se lv e s o n tw o c o unts : h o w th e p ro ble m is fr a m ed a nd w hat n e eds to b e

do ne to c h ange th e s ta tu s o f w om en. T is d e ll's (19 95, 2 0 05b) c a te go riz a tio n o f fe m in is t th e orie s in to in div id ually

fo cu se d th e orie s, s tr u ctu ra l th e orie s, a nd p o stm ode rn th e orie s o ffe rs a u se fu l fr a m ew ork fo r r e vie w in g th e se

th e orie s.

As th e c a te go ry s u gge sts , in div id ually fo cu se d fe m in is t th e orie s a re c o nce rn e d w it h w om en a s in div id uals , h o w

th e y h ave c o m e to in te rn aliz e p atr ia rc h y a s th e n o rm , a nd w hat n e eds to b e d o ne to o bta in e qual a cce ss, r ig hts ,

and o ppo rtu nit ie s. P sych o analy tic fe m in is ts , fo r e xa m ple , m ain ta in th at th e m ale d o m in atio n o f w om en (p atr ia rc h y) is

de eply r o ote d in m en's a nd w om en's s u bco nscio us a nd is p e rp e tu ate d th ro ugh g e nde r s o cia liz a tio n. C hange

ca nno t c o m e a bo ut u nle ss p e ople “ d e al w it h th e p atr ia rc h y in th e ir u nco nscio us” (T is d e ll, 2 0 05b, p . 2 54 ).

In c o ntr a st to a n in div id ual fo cu s, s tr u ctu ra l fe m in is t th e orie s fr a m e th e p ro ble m in te rm s o f s o cie ta l s tr u ctu re s a nd

in stit u tio ns th at o ppre ss w om en. M arx is t fe m in is ts a rg ue th at th e tw o s yste m s o f c a pit a lis m a nd p atr ia rc h y, in

co nju nctio n w it h e ach o th e r, o ppre ss w om en. “ S ocia lis t fe m in is ts ,” T is d e ll (2 0 05b, p . 2 55) e xp la in s, “ w ould a gre e

th at tw o s ig nif ic a nt a nd in te rre la te d s yste m s o f o ppre ssio n to w om en a re c a pit a lis m a nd p atr ia rc h y, b ut th e y a ls o

dis cu ss th e im po rta nce o f e xa m in in g o th e r s yste m s o f o ppre ssio n s u ch a s r a cia l o ppre ssio n a nd th e in te rs e ctio ns

of g e nde r, r a ce , c la ss, a nd s e xu al o rie nta tio n in w om en's liv e s.” C ult u ra l fe m in is ts e xte nd th is a naly sis to th e

exp e rie nce o f w om en o f c o lo r w ho a ls o r e pre se nt a p artic u la r c u lt u ra l g ro up, s u ch a s L a tin a, B la ck, a nd A sia n o r

Asia n A m eric a ns (T is d e ll, 2 0 05b).

Postm ode rn th e oris ts ta ke is su e w it h th e u nit o f a naly sis , o r h o w th e p ro ble m is fr a m ed b y s tr u ctu ra lis ts . O ne o r

eve n tw o s yste m s o f p o w er a nd o ppre ssio n d o n o t a de quate ly c a ptu re th e r e alit y o f w om en's e xp e rie nce a nd

oppre ssio n b e ca use “ s o m e g ro ups a re m ore p riv ile ge d th an o th e rs w it h in th e p artic u la r s tr u ctu ra l u nit o r u nit s o f

analy sis . T hus M arx is m d o es n o t a cco unt fo r th e fa ct th at m en a re m ore p riv ile ge d th an w om en; M arx is t fe m in is m

do es n o t a cco unt fo r th e fa ct th at w hit e w om en h ave m ore p riv ile ge th an w om en o f c o lo r” (T is d e ll, 19 95, p . 6 1).

Postm ode rn is ts a ls o ta ke is su e w it h th e s tr u ctu ra lis ts ’ o ve re m phasis o n lo ca tin g p o w er o uts id e th e in div id ual. In a

po stm ode rn p e rs p e ctiv e , in div id uals h ave s o m e p o w er a ls o — po w er to a ffe ct o r r e sis t th e s ta tu s q uo . P ostm ode rn

fe m in is t th e orie s th us “ te nd to a cco unt fo r m ult ip le s yste m s o f p riv ile ge a nd o ppre ssio n a nd th e ir in te rs e ctio ns,

h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?

u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /c ritic a l_ th eory _ postm odern _and_fe m in is t_ pers p ectiv e s/0 alo ng w it h p e ople 's c a pacit y fo r a ge ncy o r r e sis ta nce ” (p . 6 1). In th is p e rs p e ctiv e , th e “

co nnectio ns b etw een

in div id uals a nd s o cia l s tr u ctu re s” (T is d e ll, 2 0 05b, p . 2 56 ; it a lic s in o rig in al) a nd w he re o ne is p o sit io ne d v is -à -v is

mult ip le s tr u ctu re s a re th e fo cu s o f a naly sis .

PO W ER A N D O PPR ESSIO N

PO W ER A N D O PPR ESSIO N

In a ddit io n to th e in te rs e ctio ns o f r a ce , c la ss, a nd g e nde r, a s e co nd th e m e u nde rly in g th e se c o nte m po ra ry

appro ach e s is th at s o cia l in e quit ie s, in clu din g th o se fo und in e duca tio n, s te m fr o m p o w er-b ase d r e la tio nsh ip s:

“T ho se w ie ld in g p o w er c a n c o ntr o l o th e rs in v a ry in g w ays, g e ttin g th e m to e ngage in a ctiv it ie s n o t in th e

po w erle ss's b e st in te re st” (H anse n, 19 93, p . 2 ). A nd “ b e ca use p o w er is c o nstr u cte d in a nd th ro ugh s o cia l

in te ra ctio ns, it is a lw ays a lt e ra ble a nd d is ru pta ble , h e nce th e im po rta nce o f u nde rs ta ndin g a nd u sin g p o w er in a dult

educa tio n” (W ils o n & N esb it , 2 0 05, p . 4 54 ). O ne o f th e m ajo r ta sks o f a c rit ic a l a naly sis is to u nco ve r a nd e xp o se

th e se p o w er r e la tio nsh ip s w he re in th e d o m in atio n o f o ne g ro up's in te re sts r e su lt s in th e o ppre ssio n o f o th e r

gro ups. P ow er a nd o ppre ssio n a re c o nce pts th at p e rm eate th e th in kin g a nd w rit in g o f r a dic a l a dult e duca to rs . A s

Nesb it (19 98, p . 17 4 ) e xp la in s, “ R adic a l e duca to rs r e gard th e w orld a nd it s c o nstit u e nt s o cie tie s a s fu ll o f

co ntr a dic tio ns a nd m ark e d b y im bala nce s o f p o w er a nd p riv ile ge . H ence , th e y r e gard s u ch p ro ble m s a s p o ve rty o r

illit e ra cy n e it h e r a s is o la te d in cid e nts n o r a s m anif e sta tio ns o f in div id ual in ade quacy, b ut a s r e su lt s o f la rg e r s o cia l

is su e s. F u rth e rm ore , in div id uals , a s s o cia l a cto rs , b o th c re ate a nd a re c re ate d b y th e ir s o cia l w orld s.” F re ir e , fo r

exa m ple , c o nclu de d th at th e T hir d W orld w as “ c h ara cte riz e d b y s o cia l, p o lit ic a l, a nd e co no m ic o ppre ssio n… . T he

va rio us fo rm s o f o ppre ssio n c o nstit u te th e c o ncre te p ro ble m s o r c o ntr a dic tio ns th at a re th e ta sk o f [a ]

re vo lu tio nary p e dago gy” (E lia s & M erria m , 2 0 05, p . 15 5).

The id e ntif ic a tio n o f s yste m s o f p o w er a nd o ppre ssio n a s a le ns th ro ugh w hic h to a naly ze s o cie ty is a k e y

co m po ne nt o f c rit ic a l th e ory . C rit ic a l th e ory o rig in ate d in th e 19 40s w it h th e G erm an p hilo so phe r J ü rg e n H abe rm as

and th e F ra nkfu rt S ch o ol. W it h th e a dve nt o f W orld W ar II, H abe rm as b e ca m e d is illu sio ne d w it h M arx is m , o ffe rin g

in ste ad a v ie w o f s o cie ty th at is m ore o ptim is tic , o ne th at p uts fa it h in th e r a tio nalit y o f h um an b e in gs to e ngage in

crit iq ue a nd a ctio n to b rin g a bo ut a m ore ju st, fr e e, a nd e quit a ble s o cie ty . T he a im o f c rit ic a l th e ory , W elt o n (19 95a,

p. 3 7) w rit e s, is “ to h e lp p e ople to s to p b e in g p assiv e v ic tim s w ho c o llu de , a t le ast p artly , in th e ir d o m in atio n b y

exte rn al fo rc e s. C rit ic a l th e ory 's lib e ra tin g p ro je ct is to n am e th e e ne m ie s o f h um an fr e edo m , a nd to p o in t to th e

po ssib ilit y o f fr e edo m 's e nla rg e m ent.” In glis (19 97, p . 4 ) g o es a s te p fu rth e r in s u gge stin g th at a n a naly sis o f p o w er

le ads to e m po w erm ent o r e m ancip atio n: “ E m po w erm ent in vo lv e s p e ople d e ve lo pin g c a pacit ie s to a ct s u cce ssfu lly

wit h in th e e xis tin g s yste m a nd s tr u ctu re s o f p o w er, w hile e m ancip atio n c o nce rn s c rit ic a lly a naly zin g, r e sis tin g a nd

ch alle ngin g s tr u ctu re s o f p o w er.”

Of c o nce rn to th o se w rit in g fr o m th is p e rs p e ctiv e is th e a ppro pria tio n o f th e “ lif e w orld ”— our e ve ry d ay p e rs o nal

in te ra ctio ns in h o m e, fa m ily , a nd c o m munit y — by th e “ s yste m .” T he s yste m is c o nce iv e d o f a s s tr u ctu re s o f p o w er

(in stit u tio ns a nd o rg aniz a tio ns s u ch a s g o ve rn m ent) o r th e m eans to p o w er (s u ch a s m one y in a c a pit a lis t e co no m y,

or k n o w le dge in th e in fo rm atio n a ge ). T he se s yste m s h ave n o t o nly “ c o lo niz e d” th e lif e w orld b ut a re o ppre ssiv e :

“H um an b e in gs a s c h ild re are rs , p artn e rs , w ork e rs , c lie nts , c it iz e ns, a nd c o nsu m ers s tr u ggle a gain st th e p ro ce ss o f

be in g tu rn e d in to o bje cts o f c o rp o ra te a nd s ta te m anage m ent. S yste m ic im pe ra tiv e s, th e n, th re ate n to d is e m po w er

men a nd w om en w ho h ave th e c a pacit y to b e e m po w ere d, r e fle ctiv e a cto rs ” (W elt o n, 19 93, p . 8 8). T o fig ht th e

he ge m ony o f th e s yste m (w hic h in clu de s c o rp o ra te , g o ve rn m ent, le gal, a nd m edia d im ensio ns), c it iz e ns m ust

engage in r a tio nal d is co urs e a bo ut s o urc e s o f p o w er, k n o w le dge , a nd o ppre ssio n in th e h o pe o f r e dre ssin g th e

cu rre nt im bala nce b e tw een th e p o w er o f th e lif e w orld v e rs u s th e s yste m . A dult e duca tio n c a n b e a s it e fo r

addre ssin g p o w er a nd o ppre ssio n (B aptis te , 19 98; B ro okfie ld , 2 0 05b; R occo & W est, 19 98; W elt o n, 19 95b).

KN O W LE D GE A N D T R U TH

KN O W LE D GE A N D T R U TH

The v a rio us s ch o ols o f th o ught th at m ake u p w hat in th is c h apte r w e c a ll a p o w er r e la tio ns p e rs p e ctiv e a ll a ddre ss,

to s o m e e xte nt, th e n atu re o f tr u th a nd th e c o nstr u ctio n o f k n o w le dge . E ach o f th e th re e m ajo r o rie nta tio ns

dis cu sse d in th e n e xt s e ctio n— crit ic a l th e ory , p o stm ode rn is m , a nd fe m in is t p e dago gy— has a s o m ew hat d if fe re nt

no tio n o f k n o w le dge a nd tr u th .

The p rim ary s p o ke sp e rs o n fo r c rit ic a l th e ory , J ü rg e n H abe rm as, p ro po se d th at th e re a re th re e ty p e s o f

h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?

u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /c ritic a l_ th eory _ postm odern _and_fe m in is t_ pers p ectiv e s/0 kn o w le dge : te ch nic a l, p ra ctic a l, a nd e m ancip ato ry . T ech nic a l k n o w le dge h as to d o w it h th e w orld o f fa cts , o f

mate ria l th in gs th at s tr u ctu re o ur w orld . T his k n o w le dge c a n b e e asily v e rif ie d th ro ugh c h e ckin g w it h d o cu m ents ,

auth o rit ie s, a nd s o o n. A s ta te m ent s u ch a s “ a n a dult c a n o bta in a h ig h s ch o ol d ip lo m a th ro ugh m akin g a n

acce pta ble s co re o n th e G ED ” is te ch nic a l k n o w le dge . T o s a y, h o w eve r, th at “ a G ED d ip lo m a is ju st a s g o od a s a

hig h s ch o ol d ip lo m a” m ove s u s in to th e p ra ctic a l r e alm o f k n o w le dge , w he re c o m munic a tio n w it h o th e rs — dia lo gue

—is n e ce ssa ry to e sta blis h v a lid it y . T he v a lid it y o r tr u th o f th e c la im is a rriv e d a t th ro ugh d ia lo gic a l c o nse nsu s;

in te rp re ta tio n, ju dgm ent, a nd s in ce rit y a re im po rta nt h e re . F in ally , a q ue stio n s u ch a s “ W hy d o esn 't th e G ED d ip lo m a

have th e s a m e s ta tu s in o ur s o cie ty a s a h ig h s ch o ol d ip lo m a?” is e m ancip ato ry in n atu re b e ca use it a ddre sse s th e

fo rc e s o f s o cie ty th at e m po w er o r d is e m -p o w er s o m e in div id uals o ve r o th e rs ; th at is , o ne w ould a sk

who

h as

de te rm in e d th at a G ED d ip lo m a h as le ss s ta tu s?

Whose in te re sts

d o es it s e rv e to m ain ta in th is s ta tu s d if fe re ntia l?

Not a ll k n o w le dge , th e n, s e rv e s th e s a m e in te re sts , n o r d o es a ll k n o w le dge c o nstr u ctio n h o ld th e s a m e p o te ntia l

fo r c h alle ngin g th e s ta tu s q uo o r e m ancip atin g th e in div id ual. C le arly , e m ancip ato ry k n o w le dge h as th e m ost p o w er

to a ddre ss th e o ppre ssiv e fo rc e s in s o cie ty .

Fro m p o stm ode rn is m c o m es th e n o tio n th at th e re is n o s in gle tr u th o r r e alit y in de pe nde nt o f th e k n o w er.

Postm ode rn is m c rit ic iz e s th e m ode rn c o nce ptio n o f k n o w le dge a s a s e t o f u nde rly in g p rin cip le s th at c a n e xp la in

be havio r o r p he no m ena a cro ss in div id uals o r s e ttin gs. In th e m ode rn w orld , w hat c o nstit u te s a nd w hat is a cce pte d

as k n o w le dge is d e te rm in e d b y p o w er: “ M ode rn is m p riv ile ge s s o m e id e as a nd p e ople (s ); it m arg in aliz e s o th e rs ”

(C unnin gham & F it z g e ra ld , 19 96, p . 4 9). S in ce “ th e g o al o f p o stm ode rn is m is d iv e rs it y /p lu ra lis m a nd it s e th ic is

to le ra nce ,” k n o w le dge “ is e it h e r n o ne xis te nt o r r e la tiv e , a nd c o ntr a dic to ry n o tio ns c a n a ll b e c o nsid e re d e qually

tr u e if lo ca lly h e ld ” (p . 4 9). K no w le dge , th e n, is s o m eth in g th at is p art o f th e s o cia l a nd c u lt u ra l c o nte xt in w hic h it

occu rs ; h o w a n in div id ual o r a c o m munit y c o nstr u cts k n o w le dge a nd th e ty p e o f k n o w le dge c o nstr u cte d a re s o cio -

cu lt u ra lly d e pe nde nt. T his v ie w o f k n o w le dge g o es h and in h and w it h h o w p o stm ode rn is ts v ie w tr u th . T he re is n o

sin gle , a gre ed-u po n tr u th ; th e re a re m any tr u th s. T his v ie w le ads to o ne o f p o st-m ode rn is m 's m ajo r s tr a te gie s:

de co nstr u ctio n. A s H em phill (2 0 01, p . 2 3) e xp la in s, if a ll tr u th s a re c o nstr u ctio ns, to d e co nstr u ct is “ to u nco ve r it s

[th e te rm o r c o nce pt's ] e vo lu tio n, u npackin g th e in te re sts it s e rv e s a nd m arg in aliz e s.” F u rth e r, p o stm ode rn is m

“e nco ura ge s u s to b e c rit ic a l o f h o w k n o w le dge is o rg aniz e d— whe th e r in te rm s o f b ro ad d is cip lin e s o r s p e cif ic

co urs e c u rric u la . A ll fo rm s o f o rg aniz in g k n o w le dge … a re c o ntin ge nt, o ccu rrin g d ue to e xis tin g o rg aniz a tio ns a nd

co nste lla tio ns o f p o w er in a g iv e n m om ent— and n o t g iv e n in s o m e c o sm ic h ie ra rc h y” (H em phill, 2 0 01, p p. 2 6 -2 7).

Fe m in is ts w ho w rit e fr o m a p o sts tr u ctu ra lis t o r p o stm ode rn p e rs p e ctiv e h o ld th e s a m e v ie w a bo ut k n o w le dge a nd

tr u th . T hat is , th e y a ssu m e th e re is n o o ne T ru th , a nd e ach w om an's tr u th o r k n o w le dge is r e la tiv e to th e

so cio cu lt u ra l c o nte xt o f w hic h s h e is p art. F e m in is t th e ory e nco m passe s tw o o th e r v ie w s o f k n o w le dge

co nstr u ctio n, h o w eve r. T he p sych o lo gic a lly o rie nte d fe m in is t lit e ra tu re h as b e en h e avily in flu e nce d b y B ele nky,

Clin ch y, G old be rg e r, a nd T aru le 's

Wom en's W ays o f K now in g

(19 86 ). F ro m th e ir in te rv ie w s o f 13 5 w om en, th e y

id e ntif ie d fiv e d if fe re nt w ays w om en c o nstr u ct k n o w le dge , r a ngin g fr o m s ile nce to c o nstr u cte d k n o w in g (s e e

Chapte r T hir te en). T he ir w ork s u gge sts th at k n o w le dge is s o m eth in g th at e ach in div id ual c o nstr u cts ; th e r e su lt o f

th is p ro ce ss is a s e nse o f in div id ual e m po w erm ent, o f g ain in g a v o ic e a lo ng w it h th e a bilit y to e ffe ct c h ange in th e ir

pe rs o nal liv e s. In e m ancip ato ry fe m in is t m ode ls , in c o ntr a st, k n o w le dge is le ss p e rs o nal. D ra w in g m ore fr o m c rit ic a l

th e ory th an p sych o lo gy, th e se m ode ls “ e xa m in e th e p o lit ic a l a nd s o cia l m ech anis m s th at h ave c o ntr o lle d th e

kn o w le dge p ro ductio n p ro ce ss a nd m arg in aliz e d (o r le ft o ut) th e c o ntr ib utio ns o f w om en a nd p e ople o f c o lo r”

(T is d e ll, 19 95, p . 7 0 ).

In s u m mary , a ssu m ptio ns u nde rly in g a p o w er r e la tio ns p e rs p e ctiv e o n a dult le arn in g d ra w fr o m a w id e r a nge o f

lit e ra tu re s u ch a s M arx is t a nd fe m in is t th e ory , c rit ic a l r a ce th e ory , m ult ic u lt u ra lis m , c rit ic a l th e ory , a nd

po stm ode rn is m . A ny n um be r o f c o nce pts a nd a ssu m ptio ns in fo rm th is p e rs p e ctiv e , b ut w e c h o se th re e in te rlo ckin g

th e m es to s e t th e s ta ge fo r a d is cu ssio n o f c o ntr ib utio ns to a dult le arn in g fr o m c rit ic a l th e ory , p o stm ode rn is m , a nd

fe m in is t th e ory / p e dago gy. A t th e h e art o f a ll o f th e se o rie nta tio ns is a c rit ic a l a sse ssm ent o f th e fo rc e s o f

eco no m ic s, c la ss, r a ce , a nd g e nde r th at le ad to s yste m s o f p o w er a nd o ppre ssio n. A ll a ls o c o nsid e r h o w

kn o w le dge is c o nstr u cte d a nd h o w th e n atu re o f it s c o nstr u ctio n c a n lib e ra te o r d o m in ate . W e n o w tu rn to a m ore

de ta ile d d is cu ssio n o f c rit ic a l th e ory , p o stm ode rn is m , a nd fe m in is t p e dago gy, th re e o f th e c o nte m po ra ry

pe rs p e ctiv e s th at h ave h ad th e g re ate st im pact to d ate o n a dult le arn in g.

h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?

u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /c ritic a l_ th eory _ postm odern _and_fe m in is t_ pers p ectiv e s/0 CRIT IC AL T H EO RY A ND A D ULT L E A RN IN G

In c o ntr a st to a ndra go gy a nd e ve n tr a nsfo rm atio nal le arn in g, m ost p ra ctit io ne rs in a dult e duca tio n a re u naw are o f

crit ic a l th e ory 's p o te ntia l fo r e xa m in in g p ra ctic e o r illu m in atin g th e n atu re o f a dult le arn in g. T his is in p art b e ca use

th e w rit in g in th is a re a is d e nse a nd o btu se , a nd o pe ra tio naliz in g th e c o nce pts in vo lv e d is d if fic u lt . C rit ic a l th e ory

it s e lf h as b e en c rit ic iz e d fo r “ a sse rtin g d o m in atio n a nd r e pro ducin g a c u lt u re o f s ile nce in e duca tio nal s e ttin gs”

due to it s “ te ch nic a l ja rg o n, o bscu re r e fe re nce s, a nd a m big uo us p hra sin g” (P ie tr y ko w ski, 19 96, p . 8 4 ). In fa ct, w e

fo und o nly o ne a rtic le o n c rit ic a l th e ory in a p ra ctic e -o rie nte d p ublic a tio n. In “ Jo hn's S to ry : A n E xp lo ra tio n in to

Crit ic a l T he ory in E duca tio n,” d e M arra is (19 91) d e m onstr a te s h o w J o hn's fa ilu re to le arn to r e ad c a n b e u nde rs to od

as a s yste m ic s o cia l p ro ble m r a th e r th an o ne in div id ual's fa ilu re . T he “ s yste m ” in a c rit ic a l th e ory a naly sis is a n

in stit u tio n (s u ch a s g o ve rn m ent o r e duca tio n) th at fu nctio ns to r e pro duce th e s ta tu s q uo , in p artic u la r th e e xis tin g

so cia l c la ss s tr u ctu re . A w are ne ss o f th is o ppre ssio n c a n le ad to r e sis ta nce a nd p o ssib ly c h ange . C rit ic a l th e ory 's

str e ngth , a s n o te d e arlie r, lie s in it s c rit iq ue o f e xis tin g e co no m ic a nd s o cia l s tr u ctu re s a nd r e su lt a nt p o w er

dyn am ic s. H ow eve r, “ it is a d is co urs e th at o fte n le ave s p ra ctit io ne rs fr u str a te d” (F in ge r, 2 0 05a, p . 16 8) in s u gge stin g

work a ble s tr a te gie s fo r e ffe ctin g c h ange .

A n um be r o f a dult e duca tio n in te lle ctu als h ave b ro ught c rit ic a l th e ory , a nd in p artic u la r H abe rm as's v e rs io n, to a dult

educa tio n. W elt o n (19 93, 19 95b) h as a rtic u la te d th e w ays in w hic h c rit ic a l th e ory c a n in fo rm a dult e duca tio n th e ory

and p ra ctic e . H e id e ntif ie s s e ve ra l c o nce pts fr o m c rit ic a l th e ory th at h ave a ffe cte d a nd c a n c o ntin ue to a ffe ct a dult

educa tio n: th re e ty p e s o f k n o w le dge , id e al c o ndit io ns fo r r e fle ctiv e d is co urs e , in stit u tio ns a s le arn in g c o m munit ie s,

and th e in te rp la y o f th e s yste m a nd th e lif e w orld .

The th re e ty p e s o f k n o w le dge d is cu sse d e arlie r in th is c h apte r— te ch nic a l, p ra ctic a l, a nd e m ancip ato ry — pre se nt a

fr a m ew ork fo r u nde rs ta ndin g a nd c rit iq uin g a dult e duca tio n a s a d is cip lin e a nd a s a fie ld o f p ra ctic e . C ollin s (19 91,

19 95a, 19 95b), fo r e xa m ple , fin ds th e fie ld o f a dult e duca tio n to b e o ve rly c o nce rn e d w it h te ch nic a l k n o w le dge (w it h

th e le ast a tte ntio n to e m ancip ato ry ) a t th e e xp e nse o f s o cia l a ctio n d e sig ne d to b rin g a bo ut a m ore ju st a nd e qual

so cie ty . A cco rd in g to C ollin s, th e fie ld is to o p re occu pie d w it h “ p ro fe ssio naliz in g,” w it h “ th e c u lt o f e ffic ie ncy,” a nd

wit h “ a n e age rn e ss to s e rv e th e c o nve ntio nal p ro fe ssio ns” (19 95a, p . 7 9 ). T his p re occu patio n w it h th e te ch nic a l

has b o th d is to rte d le arn in g a nd d iv e rte d a dult e duca to rs fr o m p ro vid in g a “ c o nte xt w he re s h are d c o m mit m ents

[p ra ctic a l k n o w le dge ] to w ard s a s o cia lly m ore fr e e, ju st, a nd r a tio nal s o cie ty w ill c o ale sce ” (19 91, p . 119 ). B y th is ,

Collin s m eans th at a dult e duca to rs a re to o c o nce rn e d w it h h o w to p la n p ro gra m s o r a rra nge a c la ssro om a t th e

exp e nse o f c o nsid e rin g w hy s o m e a dult s d o n o t h ave a cce ss to e duca tio n, fo r e xa m ple .

In a s im ila r a ppro ach , W ils o n (19 93) a nd W ils o n a nd H aye s (2 0 00b) u se th e to ols o f c rit ic a l th e ory to tr a ce th e r is e

of te ch nic a l r a tio nalit y a nd p ro fe ssio nalis m r e pre se nte d in th e fie ld 's h andbo oks. T he se h andbo oks, w hic h a re

publis h e d a ppro xim ate ly e ve ry te n y e ars , a re e ncyclo pe dic c o m pila tio ns o f e ssa ys d e scrib in g th e fie ld o f a dult

educa tio n. F o r th e fie ld to b e co m e p ro fe ssio naliz e d, a b o dy o f k n o w le dge n e ede d to b e c o m pile d w it h w hic h to

tr a in a dult e duca to rs . “ T his is w hat th e d is co urs e in th e h andbo oks r e pre se nts . W it h o ut th is b asis in a s cie ntif ic a lly

de riv e d b o dy o f k n o w le dge , th e re w ould b e n o p ro fe ssio nal a ctiv it y to tr a nsa ct in a s e rv ic e e co no m y” (W ils o n,

19 93, p . 14 ). It w as n o t u ntil th e 2 0 00 h andbo ok (W ils o n & H aye s, 2 0 00a) th at a m ore c rit ic a l s ta nce w as ta ke n in

asse ssin g th e b o dy o f k n o w le dge in th e fie ld . B oth C ollin s a nd W ils o n fe ar th at th e g rip o f p ro fe ssio nalis m a nd

te ch nic a l r a tio nalit y p re ve nts th e fie ld o f a dult e duca tio n fr o m a tte ndin g to s o cia l a ctio n a nd e m ancip ato ry in te re sts .

Clo se ly r e la te d to fo rm s o f k n o w le dge is H abe rm as's id e al c o ndit io ns fo r r e fle ctiv e d is co urs e . H abe rm as h as

id e ntif ie d fo ur c rit e ria o r c o ndit io ns th at, if a pplie d to in te ra ctio ns a m ong a dult s , s h o uld r e su lt in m atu re , r a tio nal,

ca ndid , “ a uth e ntic ” d is cu ssio ns: c o m pre he nsib ilit y , s in ce rit y , tr u th , a nd le git im acy. M ezir o w (19 95, p p. 5 2-5 3), w ho

has a do pte d th e se c o ndit io ns a s c e ntr a l to h is tr a nsfo rm ativ e le arn in g th e ory , e xp la in s h o w th e se c o ndit io ns w ork

in d is cu ssio ns:

When w e c o m munic a te o r h ave d oubts a bout t h e t ru th o r a uth entic it y o f t h e a sse rtio n, t h e t ru th fu ln ess o f t h e s p eaker, o r

th e a ppro pria te ness o f w hat is a sse rte d in lig ht o f r e le va nt n orm s, w e o fte n s e ek t h e b est ju dgm ent o f t h e m ost in fo rm ed,

obje ctiv e , a nd r a tio nal p ers o ns w e c a n f in d. W e e ngage t h em in a s p ecia l f o rm o f d ia lo gue w hic h H aberm as r e fe rs t o a s

“d is co urs e .” D is co urs e in vo lv e s a n e ffo rt t o s e t a sid e b ia s, p re ju dic e , a nd p ers o nal c o nce rn s a nd t o d o o ur b est t o b e o pen

h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?

u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /c ritic a l_ th eory _ postm odern _and_fe m in is t_ pers p ectiv e s/0 and o bje ctiv e in p re se ntin g a nd a sse ssin g r e aso ns a nd r e vie w in g t h e e vid ence a nd a rg um ents f o r a nd a gain st t h e

pro ble m atic a sse rtio n t o a rriv e a t a c o nse nsu s.

The se c rit e ria c a n fo rm a b asis fo r id e ntif y in g th e s kills th at le arn e rs n e ed to p o sse ss in o rd e r to e ngage in m ore

auth e ntic d is cu ssio ns. M ezir o w a nd o th e rs r e aliz e th at th e se a re id e al c o ndit io ns; n e ve rth e le ss, th e y g iv e u s a

sta ndard to w ork to w ard in a dult le arn in g tr a nsa ctio ns.

Crit ic a l th e ory h as a ls o c o ntr ib ute d to a dult e duca tio n in c o nsid e rin g h o w in stit u tio ns th e m se lv e s c a n b e co m e

le arn in g c o m munit ie s. A cco rd in g to W elt o n (19 93, p . 8 9 ), “ H abe rm as b e lie ve s th at w hile a ll in stit u tio ns a re

educa tiv e , n o t a ll a re tr u e le arn in g c o m munit ie s. A n in stit u tio n, w he th e r fa m ily , c o rp o ra tio n, o r s ta te a ge ncy, m ay b e

org aniz e d to b lo ck fr e e a nd n o nco erc e d le arn in g p ro ce sse s. H abe rm as e nco ura ge s u s to a sk w he th e r o ur

in stit u tio ns, la rg e a nd s m all, tr u ly e nable h um an b e in gs to u nfo ld th e ir p o te ntia ls (c o gnit iv e , o ra l, te ch nic a l,

ae sth e tic ) in th e ir d aily r o utin e in te ra ctio ns.” S tr a te gie s to b uild le arn in g o rg aniz a tio ns a re e ffo rts in th is d ir e ctio n,

as is th e lit e ra tu re o n c la ssro om a nd p la nnin g p ra ctic e s th at e ngage a n e m ancip ato ry a ge nda (s e e E lls w orth , 19 89 ;

Fe nw ic k, 2 0 05a; G outh ro , 2 0 03; S ch ie d, C arte r, P re sto n, & H ow ell, 19 97; T is d e ll & P erry , 19 97; W ils o n & C erv e ro ,

20 01). In v ie w o f th is th in kin g, W elt o n (19 95b, p . 15 1) e ve n a rg ue s th at th e w ork p la ce h as p o te ntia l “ a s a s it e fo r

em ancip ato ry le arn in g.” C rit ic a l a dult e duca to rs h ave a “ m andate … to a rg ue a nd s tr u ggle fo r w ork p la ce s th at o pe n

up s p ace fo r n o n-c o erc e d, fr e e c o m munic a tio n p e rta in in g to th e o rg aniz a tio n, c o ntr o l a nd p urp o se s o f w ork ” (p .

15 2).

Ano th e r c o ntr ib utio n o f c rit ic a l th e ory to a dult e duca tio n, id e ntif ie d b y W elt o n (19 93), is th e n o tio n o f th e in te rp la y

be tw een th e lif e w orld a nd th e s yste m . A s a lr e ady n o te d, th e lif e w orld is th e in fo rm al, e ve ry d ay in te ra ctio ns o f d aily

lif e , a nd th e s yste m c o nsis ts o f th o se s tr u ctu re s b ase d o n m one y a nd p o w er (c o rp o ra tio ns, g o ve rn m ent,

educa tio n, a nd s o o n) th at h ave a n im pact o n th e lif e -w orld . T he se s yste m s d o m ore th an in tr u de in to th e lif e w orld ;

th e y o ppre ss. C ollin s (19 91, 19 95a) is p artic u la rly a rtic u la te a bo ut h o w fo rc e s fr o m th e s yste m , s u ch a s e xp e rtis e ,

co m pe te ncy-b ase d c u rric u la , a nd m uch o f w ork p la ce le arn in g, h ave d is e m po w ere d a dult s in th e ir lif e w orld s. In h is

opin io n, s p ace s in o ur e ve ry d ay w orld w he re d is cu ssio ns o f s o cia l a nd p o lit ic a l is su e s a nd w hat c a n b e d o ne a bo ut

th e m c o uld o ccu r h ave b e en ta ke n o ve r b y s yste m s th at p ro m ote te ch nic a l le arn in g. S elf -d ir e cte d le arn in g, fo r

exa m ple , h as b e en to ute d fo r it s v a lu e in c re atin g “ p ro fe ssio nals .” B ut

th e id ea o f “ fa cilit a tin g” s e lf -d ir e cte d le arn in g, w hic h K now le s r e co gniz e d o rd in ary w id e-a w ake a dult s a lr e ady p osse ss (“ to

be a dult m eans t o b e s e lf -d ir e ctin g”), m akes n o m ore s e nse t h an c o m fo rta ble p edagogic a l c h atte r a bout e m pow erin g

people . F or a c rit ic a l p ers p ectiv e o n a dult e duca tio n t h e in it ia l t a sk is t o id entif y s o cia l s tru ctu re s a nd p ra ctic e s w hic h

(m is )s h ape s o cia l le arn in g p ro ce sse s a nd u nderm in e c a pacit ie s a dult s a lr e ady p osse ss t o c o ntro l t h eir o w n e duca tio n.

[C ollin s, 1 9 94, p . 1 0 0]

Fo r C ollin s (19 91, p . 119 ), c rit ic a l p ra ctic e m eans b e in g e ngage d in “ d e fin able c o ncre te p ro je cts fo r s o cia l c h ange

wit h o ut w hic h ta lk o f ju stic e , e m ancip atio n, a nd e qualit y b e co m es h o llo w r h e to ric .”

Sin ce th e lif e w orld a nd th e s yste m a re in te rre la te d, th e re is s o m e m erit in fo cu sin g o n th e in te ra ctio n o f th e tw o,

fr o m a p o pula r m ove m ent s ta ndpo in t o r a s yste m s p e rs p e ctiv e . “ T he ju xta po sit io n o f lif e w orld a nd s yste m

co nce pts is c le arly s ig nif ic a nt in e nablin g u s to ‘t h in k d e eply a nd r e alis tic a lly a bo ut th e s yste m ic b lo cka ge s to th e

ach ie ve m ent o f a m ore fu lly d e m ocra tiz e d s o cie ty ’” (C ollin s, 19 95b, p . 19 8). H art's (19 95) a naly sis o f th e w ork -p la ce

and th e lif e w orld o f th e fa m ily d o es ju st th is , a s d o es H ill's (19 95, 19 98) s tu dy o f P ennsylv a nia c it iz e ns’ g ro ups

engage d in e nvir o nm enta l c o nflic ts . T he c it iz e ns’ g ro ups a nd th e g o ve rn m ent r e gula to ry a ge ncy “ w ere b o th

in str u m enta l in c o m munit y le arn in g” a nd c o m munit y c o nflic t (19 95, p . 16 3).

The m ost r e ce nt w ork in c rit ic a l th e ory b y a n a dult e duca to r is b y B ro okfie ld (2 0 01, 2 0 02, 2 0 05a, 2 0 05b). H e

pro po se s a c rit ic a l th e ory fr a m ew ork fo r a th e ory o f a dult le arn in g a nd e duca tio n. A t th e c e nte r o f th is th e ory o f

adult le arn in g is id e olo gic a l c rit iq ue : “ A c rit ic a l th e ory o f a dult le arn in g s h o uld h ave a t it s c o re a n u nde rs ta ndin g o f

ho w a dult s le arn to r e co gniz e th e p re do m in ance o f id e olo gy in th e ir e ve ry d ay th o ughts a nd a ctio ns a nd in th e

h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?

u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /c ritic a l_ th eory _ postm odern _and_fe m in is t_ pers p ectiv e s/0 in stit u tio ns o f c iv il s o cie ty ” (2 0 01, p p. 2 0 -2 1). M ore s p e cif ic a lly , th e re a re s e ve n “ le arn in g ta sks” e m be dde d in c rit ic a l

le arn in g th e ory :

1 .

Challe ngin g id e olo gy. T his is “ th e b asic to ol fo r h e lp in g a dult s le arn to p e ne tr a te th e g iv e ns o f e ve ry d ay

re alit y to r e ve al th e in e quit y a nd o ppre ssio n th at lu rk b e ne ath ” (B ro okfie ld , 2 0 05b, p . 4 2).

2 .

Conte stin g h e ge m ony. H ege m ony is th e n o tio n th at “ p e ople le arn to a cce pt a s n atu ra l a nd in th e ir o w n b e st

in te re st a n u nju st s o cia l o rd e r” (B ro okfie ld , 2 0 05b, p . 4 3).

3 .

Unm askin g p o w er. “ P art o f b e co m in g a dult is le arn in g to r e co gniz e th e p la y o f p o w er in o ur liv e s a nd w ays it

is u se d a nd a buse d” (B ro okfie ld , 2 0 05b, p . 4 7).

4 .

Ove rc o m in g a lie natio n. “ T he r e m ova l o f a lie natio n a llo w s fo r th e p o ssib ilit y o f fr e edo m , fo r th e

unm anip ula te d e xe rc is e o f o ne 's c re ativ e p o w ers . A s s u ch , c la im in g fr e edo m a nd o ve rc o m in g a lie natio n a re

in e xtr ic a bly in te rtw in e d” (B ro okfie ld , 2 0 05b, p . 5 0 ).

5 .

Le arn in g lib e ra tio n. A dult s n e ed to le arn to lib e ra te th e m se lv e s, in div id ually a nd c o lle ctiv e ly , fr o m th e

do m in ant id e olo gy.

6 .

Recla im in g r e aso n. “ A m ajo r c o nce rn o f c rit ic a l th e ory is to r e cla im r e aso n a s s o m eth in g to b e a pplie d in a ll

sp he re s o f lif e , p artic u la rly in d e cid in g v a lu e s b y w hic h w e s h o uld liv e , n o t ju st in a re as w he re te ch nic a l

de cis io ns a re c a lle d fo r” (B ro okfie ld , 2 0 05b, p . 5 6 ).

7 .

Pra ctic in g d e m ocra cy. A dult s m ust le arn to liv e w it h th e c o ntr a dic tio ns o f d e m ocra cy, “ le arn in g to a cce pt th at

de m ocra cy is a lw ays a p artia lly fu nctio nin g id e al” (B ro okfie ld , 2 0 05b, p . 6 5).

We h ave illu str a te d h o w c rit ic a l th e ory c a n in fo rm b o th a dult e duca tio n th e ory a nd p ra ctic e . H ow eve r, a s w it h a ny

oth e r th e ory , th e re a re p o in ts o f d e bate a nd c rit iq ue . T he n o tio n th at c rit ic a l th e ory is a u se fu l fr a m ew ork fo r b e tte r

unde rs ta ndin g a dult le arn in g h as it s e lf b e en c rit iq ue d. E lls w orth (19 89 ), in h e r n o w c la ssic a rtic le o n p ro ble m s w it h

apply in g a n e m ancip ato ry , d ia lo gic a ppro ach to th e c la ssro om , fo und th at “ k e y a ssu m ptio ns, g o als , a nd

pe dago gic a l p ra ctic e s fu ndam enta l to th e lit e ra tu re o n c rit ic a l p e dago gy— nam ely , ‘e m po w erm ent,’ ‘s tu de nt v o ic e ,’

‘d ia lo gue ,’ a nd e ve n th e te rm ‘c rit ic a l’— are r e pre ssiv e m yth s th at p e rp e tu ate r e la tio ns o f d o m in atio n” (p . 2 9 8). In

exp e rim entin g w it h a c o lle ge c la ss o n r a cis m , E lls w orth d is co ve re d th at s h e a nd th e s tu de nts w ere ill e quip pe d to

handle th e u ne qual p o w er r e la tio ns in th e ir o w n c la ssro om . S he w rit e s:

Our c la ssro om w as n ot in f a ct a s a fe s p ace f o r s tu dents t o s p eak o ut o r t a lk b ack a bout t h eir e xp erie nce s o f o ppre ssio n

both in sid e a nd o uts id e o f t h e c la ssro om …. T hin gs w ere n ot b ein g s a id f o r a n um ber o f r e aso ns. T hese in clu ded f e ar o f

bein g m is u nders to od a nd/o r d is clo sin g t o o m uch a nd b eco m in g t o o v u ln era ble ; … r e se ntm ent t h at o th er o ppre ssio ns

(s e xis m , h ete ro se xis m , f a t o ppre ssio n, c la ssis m , a nti- S em it is m ) w ere b ein g m arg in aliz e d in t h e n am e o f a ddre ssin g

ra cis m ; … [a nd] c o nfu sio n a bout le ve ls o f t ru st a nd c o m mit m ent s u rro undin g t h ose w ho w ere a llie s t o a noth er g ro up's

stru ggle s. [1 9 89, p p. 3 15 -3 16 ]

Colla rd (19 95) c o ncu rs w it h E lls w orth , a rg uin g th at d is co urs e (th e c o ndit io ns o f id e al s p e ech ) “ m ere ly r e in tr o duce s

an o ld e lit is m u nde r th e g uis e o f a c o m munic a tiv e e th ic ” (p . 6 8). F u rth e r, th e id e al s p e ech s it u atio n “ te nds to

dis re gard d if fe re nce a nd e xclu de th o se w ho h ave n o v o ic e — i.e ., it is im plic it ly h ie ra rc h ic a l” (p . 6 5). W e a ls o fe el th at

while c rit ic a l th e ory a llo w s u s to u nco ve r th e u se a nd a buse o f p o w er, it is a p artic u la rly c h alle ngin g p e rs p e ctiv e to

put in to p ra ctic e . H ow d o w e a s a dult e duca to rs a ctu ally g o a bo ut p ro m otin g r a tio nal d is co urs e , o r h e lp a dult s

“le arn to lib e ra te th e m se lv e s” (B ro okfie ld , 2 0 05b, p . 6 5), fo r e xa m ple ?

Desp it e th e se c rit ic is m s, c rit ic a l th e ory r e m ain s a p artic u la rly im po rta nt u nde rp in nin g to th e ory b uild in g in a dult

le arn in g. F o r e xa m ple , M ezir o w 's th e ory o f p e rs p e ctiv e tr a nsfo rm atio n, d is cu sse d in C hapte r S ix , d ra w s h e avily

fr o m H abe rm as. C rit ic a l th e ory h as a ls o in fo rm ed a naly se s o f p ro fe ssio naliz a tio n, p o w er a nd o ppre ssio n, a nd th e

dyn am ic s o f th e te ach in g a nd le arn in g tr a nsa ctio n.

h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?

u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /c ritic a l_ th eory _ postm odern _and_fe m in is t_ pers p ectiv e s/0 PO ST M ODER N IS M A ND A D ULT L E A RN IN G

Unce rta in ty c h ara cte riz e s to day's p o stm ode rn w orld . A s G ir o ux (19 92, p . 3 9 ) o bse rv e s, “ W e h ave e nte re d a n a ge

th at is m ark e d b y a c ris is o f p o w er, p atr ia rc h y, a uth o rit y , id e ntit y , a nd e th ic s. T his n e w a ge h as b e en d e scrib e d, fo r

be tte r o r w ors e , b y m any th e oris ts in a v a rie ty o f d is cip lin e s a s th e a ge o f p o stm ode rn is m .” U nlik e th e m ode rn

world , w hic h is c h ara cte riz e d b y “ th e s cie ntif ic , in dustr ia l, a nd s o cia l p ro gra m s, in stit u tio ns, a ctio ns, a nd a rtif a cts

ge ne ra te d b y th e h um anis tic a nd E nlig hte nm ent s e arc h fo r th e u niv e rs a l fo undatio ns o f tr u th , m ora lit y , a nd

ae sth e tic s” (B agnall, 19 95, p . 8 1), in th e p o stm ode rn e ra , th in gs a re m uch m ore d iv e rs e , flu id , illu sio nary , a nd

co nte ste d, in clu din g th e r e alit y o f th e w orld it s e lf . Id e ntif y in g o ppre ssio n, “ d e fin in g th e e ne m y” (N ew m an, 19 94), a nd

ta kin g r ig ht fo rm s o f a ctio n a re n o t s o e asy in a p o stm ode rn w orld . A s P lu m b (19 95b, p . 18 8) o bse rv e s, a dult

educa tio n fr o m a “ m ode rn ” w orld p e rs p e ctiv e “ is p o orly e quip pe d to a rtic u la te h o w it c a n p e rs is t a s a m eanin gfu l

em ancip ato ry p ra ctic e w it h o ut r e in -s crib in g it s e lf a s a n in stit u tio n th at s u ppre sse s h e te ro ge ne it y a nd d if fe re nce .”

New m an (2 0 06) h o w eve r, is o ne w rit e r w ho ta ke s u p th is c h alle nge , o ffe rin g n um ero us s tr a te gie s fo r s o cia l

activ is ts to c h anne l th e ir fr u str a tio n, d is m ay, a nd a nge r in to d e fia nt a ctio n.

In a p o stm ode rn w orld , e ve ry th in g is “ c o nte ste d,” u p fo r g ra bs. W hat h as b e en o r is c o nsid e re d tr u e , r e al, o r r ig ht

ca n b e q ue stio ne d; th e re a re m ult ip le in te rp re ta tio ns d e pe ndin g o n w he re o ne is s ta ndin g a nd w hat fa cto rs a re in

ju xta po sit io n w it h o ne a no th e r. T he re a re n o a bso lu te s, n o s in gle th e ore tic a l fr a m ew ork fo r e xa m in in g s o cia l a nd

po lit ic a l is su e s. H ence , c rit ic a l th e ory 's g o al o f e m ancip atio n a nd o ve rc o m in g o ppre ssio n c a n it s e lf b e q ue stio ne d

be ca use it r e pre se nts a “ lo gic ” th at “ d o es n o t to le ra te d if fe re nce ” (P ie tr y ko w ski, 19 96, p . 9 0). A t th e s a m e tim e, a s

Collin s (19 94, p p. 9 9-10 0) p o in ts o ut, p o stm ode rn is m , in c o ntr a st to H abe rm asia n c rit ic a l th e ory , le ave s u s w it h n o

means o f c h o osin g “ s e nsib ly b e tw een o ne c o urs e o f a ctio n a nd a no th e r. T he re is n o tr u th to b e fo und, o nly a

plu ra lit y o f s ig ns, s ty le s, in te rp re ta tio ns, a nd m eanin gle ss p ro ce ss.” T he re fo re , p o stm ode rn is m c a n le ave u s w it h

tw o a lm ost d ia m etr ic a lly o ppo se d v ie w s. It c a n b e s e en a s “ o ffe rin g a p e ssim is tic , n e gativ e , g lo om y a sse ssm ent …

of fr a gm enta tio n, d is in te gra tio n, m ala is e , m eanin gle ssn e ss” (R ose nau, 19 92, p . 15 ). O r it c a n b e s e en a s h o pe fu l— a

world th at is “ n o ndo gm atic , te nta tiv e , a nd n o nid e olo gic a l” (p . 16 ), o ne in w hic h a dult e duca tio n c a n p la y a m ajo r

ro le .

Exa ctly h o w p o stm ode rn is m c a n p la y a “ m ajo r r o le ” in a dult e duca tio n is o nly r e ce ntly b e in g a rtic u la te d. K ilg o re

(2 0 04), fo r e xa m ple , b e gin s b y a naly zin g th e n atu re o f p o stm ode rn k n o w in g, in clu din g th e n o tio n o f m ult ip le tr u th s,

th at m eanin g lie s n o t in te xt b ut in it s in te rp re ta tio n, a nd th at p o w er, in e xtr ic a bly lin ke d to k n o w le dge , is “ s o m eth in g

th at w e e xe rc is e r a th e r th an p o sse ss” (p . 4 8). S he g o es o n to p o in t o ut th at a t th e h e art o f a p o stm ode rn

pe dago gy is a “ s h akin g u p [o f] th e s o cia l p o sit io ns o f te ach e r a nd s tu de nt a nd th e p o w er r e la tio nsh ip b e tw een

th e m . S uch a sp ir a tio ns w ill r e quir e u s to c o nsid e r th e d e ath o f th e te ach e r, th e s u bve rs io n o f th e s tu de nt, a nd th e

dif fu sio n o f p o w er” (p . 4 8).

Oth e rs h ave fo cu se d o n th e p o stm ode rn n o tio n o f th e s e lf a nd it s im po rta nce in a dult le arn in g. T he s e lf in

po stm ode rn th o ught is n o t th e u nif ie d, in te gra te d, a uth e ntic s e lf o f m ode rn tim es. R ath e r, th e s e lf is m ult ip le , e ve r

ch angin g, a nd s o m e s a y, fr a gm ente d. A s G erg e n (19 91, p . 7 ) a rg ue s, “ U nde r p o stm ode rn c o ndit io ns, p e rs o ns e xis t

in a s ta te o f c o ntin uo us c o nstr u ctio n a nd r e co nstr u ctio n… . E ach r e alit y o f th e s e lf g iv e s w ay to r e fle xiv e

que stio nin g, ir o ny, a nd u lt im ate ly th e p la yfu l p ro bin g o f y e t a no th e r r e alit y .”

Such a n o tio n o f s e lf h as im plic a tio ns fo r a dult le arn in g a nd d e ve lo pm ent. In a n e xp lo ra tio n o f th is q ue stio n, C la rk

and D ir k x (2 0 00, p . 112 ) fin d th e n o tio n o f a u nit a ry s e lf “ a lit tle lik e tr y in g to u nde rs ta nd th e u niv e rs e b y u sin g a

te le sco pe w it h a fix e d le ns a nd p o sit io n.” C la rk (19 97, p . 111) a rg ue s th at “ le arn in g fr o m th e a ssu m ptio n o f a u nif ie d

se lf p riv ile ge s th e r a tio nal, a ge nic s e lf a nd th e re by fa ils to r e co gniz e a nd to g iv e v o ic e to o th e r d im ensio ns o f th e

se lf .” A p o stm ode rn p e rs p e ctiv e o f th e s e lf a llo w s fo r “ u nde rs ta ndin g, h o no rin g, a nd fo ste rin g d iv e rs it y ” w it h in th e

liv e s o f o ur a dult le arn e rs (C la rk & D ir k x, 2 0 00, p . 112 ). B y e xte nsio n, a dult e duca to rs c a n b e s e nsit iv e to “ th e

no nco gnit iv e , e m otiv e in te re sts , in clin atio n, a nd p re fe re nce s o f … p artic ip ants (B agnall, 19 99, p . 13 5). T hat is ,

ae sth e tic , s p ir it u al, a ffe ctiv e , a nd e xp e rie ntia l a sp e cts o f th e s e lf b e co m e a s im po rta nt a s th e r a tio nal. M cLa re n

(19 97, p . 2 5) w rit e s th at e duca to rs n e ed to a ssis t s tu de nts in d e alin g w it h th e fo llo w in g q ue stio ns o f id e ntit y :

How h as t h e s o cia l o rd er f a sh io ned m e in w ays w it h w hic h I n o lo nger d esir e t o id entif y ? In w hat d ir e ctio ns d o I d esir e a nd

h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?

u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /c ritic a l_ th eory _ postm odern _and_fe m in is t_ pers p ectiv e s/0 why? T o w hat e xte nt a re m y d re am s a nd m y d esir e s m y o w n? W hat w ill lik ely b e t h e c o nse quence s f o r m e a nd o th ers

both lik e m e a nd d if fe re nt f ro m m e? T o w hat e xte nt is s o cie ty in ve ntin g m e a nd b y w hat m ora l, e pis te m olo gic a l, p olit ic a l,

or t ra nsce ndenta l a uth orit y is t h is t a kin g p la ce ? H ow a m I t o ju dge t h e w orld t h at m ade m e a nd o n w hat b asis c a n I

unm ake m yse lf in o rd er t o r e m ake t h e w orld ?

In th e fa ce o f s u ch a fr a gm ente d w orld , r e la tio nsh ip s, c o nne cte dne ss, a nd in te rd e pe nde nce a re th e c o nsta nts th at

ho ld u s to ge th e r. F in ge r (19 95, p . 116 ) is e xp lic it a bo ut m ovin g to a c o lle ctiv e a ctio n a ge nda to r e sp o nd to

th e n ew c h alle nges… . E xp erts m ust jo in g ro ups o f le arn ers w ork in g c o lle ctiv e ly w it h r e al p eople o n c o ncre te p ro ble m s… .

Teach in g a nd p re ach in g r e ady-m ade s o lu tio ns t o in div id uals m ust b e r e pla ce d w it h c o lla bora tiv e , v e rtic a l, h oriz o nta l, a nd

cro ss-d is cip lin ary le arn in g. S uch le arn in g m ust b e r e co gniz e d a s p ro bably t h e o nly “ re so urc e ” s till a va ila ble t o u s t o g et

th ro ugh a nd o ut o f t h e e ve r a cce le ra tin g v ic io us c ir c le . T his , o f c o urs e , m ust b e a c o lle ctiv e a nd c o lla bora tiv e e ffo rt,

beca use t h ere is n o in div id ual w ay o ut.

Postm ode rn is ts c e le bra te d iv e rs it y a m ong p e ople , id e as, a nd in stit u tio ns. B y a cce ptin g th e d iv e rs it y a nd p lu ra lit y o f

th e w orld , n o o ne e le m ent is p riv ile ge d o r m ore p o w erfu l th an a no th e r. U sh e r, B ry a nt, a nd J o hnsto n (19 97, p . 2 2)

sp e ak o f th e a dva nta ge s o f th is p e rs p e ctiv e :

Postm odern it y h as p ro vid ed s p ace s f o r r is in g s o cia l g ro ups s u ch a s t h e n ew m id dle c la sse s, f o r n ew p ostm odern s o cia l

move m ents a nd f o r h it h erto o ppre sse d a nd m arg in alis e d g ro ups s u ch a s w om en, b la ck s, g ays, a nd e th nic m in orit ie s t o

fin d a v o ic e , t o a rtic u la te t h eir o w n “ s u bju gate d” k now le dges a nd t o e m pow er t h em se lv e s in a v a rie ty o f d if fe re nt w ays

and a cco rd in g t o t h eir o w n s p ecif ic a gendas. In t h is s it u atio n, e duca tio n s to ps b ein g a u niv o ca l, p re dic ta ble r e alit y a nd

co nse quently it m akes n o s e nse t o s p eak o f it s im ply a s e it h er f u nctio nin g t o r e pro duce t h e s o cia l o rd er o r a s im plic it

so cia l e ngin eerin g, w heth er t h is b e f o r d om estic a tio n o r lib era tio n… . L in ked w it h t h is is t h e im pact o f a r e co nfig ura tio n o f

educa tio n a w ay f ro m it s in stit u tio nal a nd p ro vid er-le d lo ca tio n.

Plu m b (19 95a, p . 2 4 6) o bse rv e s th at a lt h o ugh s o m uch fr a gm enta tio n a nd d iv e rs it y c a n b e d is e m po w erin g, it is a ls o

what is n e ede d to c h alle nge th e e qually d is p ara te fo rc e s o f o ppre ssio n: “ N o lo nge r is it s u ffic ie nt to fo ste r th e

em erg e nce o f a p artic u la r k in d o f id e ntit y s u ffic ie ntly s tr o ng to o ve rc o m e th e in e quit a ble n o rm s o f c a pit a lis m ”;

ra th e r, “ c rit ic a l a dult e duca tio n m ust in ve stig ate n e w w ays th at id e ntit y c a n s till p ro ductiv e ly b e m obiliz e d in th e

fr a gm entin g e nvir o nm ent o f p o stm ode rn it y .”

Postm ode rn is m h as b e en c rit ic iz e d fo r it s p e ssim is m , it s e xtr e m e r e la tiv is m , it s la ck o f a m ora l c e nte r. F u rth e rm ore ,

wit h fe w e xce ptio ns (s e e C la rk & D ir k x, 2 0 00; K e gan, 19 94; K ilg o re , 2 0 04; T is d e ll, 19 95), it c o m es u p la ckin g o n

sp e cif ic te ch niq ue s o r s tr a te gie s fo r d e alin g w it h th e p o stm ode rn c la ssro om o r a dult e duca tio n p ro gra m . W hat

po stm ode rn is m d o es o ffe r a dult e duca tio n is a r e sp e ct fo r d iv e rs it y , a m ovin g o f p re vio usly m arg in aliz e d g ro ups

in to a p o sit io n o f e qual v a lu e to o th e r g ro ups, a nd a c rit iq ue (o r d e co nstr u ctio n, s o m e w ould s a y) o f th e c a te go rie s

by w hic h w e h ave la be le d a sp e cts o f o ur p ra ctic e . W hat d o es it m ean to b e c a te go riz e d a s illit e ra te in o ur s o cie ty ,

fo r e xa m ple ? T he m arg in aliz e d g ro ups id e ntif ie d b y U sh e r, B ry a nt, a nd J o hnsto n (19 97)— wom en, b la cks, g ays, a nd

eth nic m in o rit ie s— have n o t fo und a n a dvo ca te u ntil v e ry r e ce ntly in c rit ic a l th e ory , w hic h is fo cu se d p rim arily o n

ra tio nalit y , e co no m ic s, c la ss, a nd p o w er. F ro m p o stm ode rn it y 's c h alle nge s to m ode rn , r a tio nal th o ught a nd s o cie ty

co m es a v a lu in g o f d iv e rs it y a nd o ppo rtu nit ie s in he re nt in u nce rta in ty a nd n o ndo gm atic p ra ctic e s. P ostm ode rn

dis co urs e s “ o ffe r a p ath — alb e it a fr u str a tin g a nd c o nvo lu te d o ne — to u nde rs ta nd p re se nt a nd fu tu re p he no m ena

th at a re n o lo nge r w ell s u it e d to m ode rn is t, r a tio nal e xp la natio ns” (H em phill, 2 0 01, p . 2 7).

FEM IN IS T P ED AG O GY A ND A D ULT L E A RN IN G

As th e n am e im plie s, fe m in is t p e dago gy fo cu se s o n th e c o nce rn s o f w om en in th e te ach in g-le arn in g tr a nsa ctio n.

Fe m in is t p e dago gy is d e riv e d fr o m fe m in is t th e ory , o r m ore a ccu ra te ly , fe m in is t th e orie s. T he re a re , fo r e xa m ple ,

lib e ra l, r a dic a l, p sych o analy tic , B la ck, M arx is t, a nd p o stm ode rn v e rs io ns o f fe m in is t th e ory . B ase d in fe m in is t th e ory ,

fe m in is t p e dago gy is “ a m eth o d o f te ach in g a nd le arn in g e m plo yin g a p o lit ic a l fr a m ew ork th at in vo lv e s

h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?

u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /c ritic a l_ th eory _ postm odern _and_fe m in is t_ pers p ectiv e s/0 co nscio usn e ss-r a is in g, a ctiv is m , a nd a c a rin g a nd s a fe e nvir o nm ent” (L e e & J o hnso n-B aile y, 2 0 04, p . 5 7).

How eve r, ju st a s th e re a re m any fe m in is m s, th e re a re a ls o n um ero us s tr a nds o f fe m in is t p e dago gy th at h ave b e en

ca te go riz e d in v a rio us w ays. M ahe r (19 87), fo r e xa m ple , h as p la ce d th e v a rio us p e rs p e ctiv e s in to o ne o f tw o

ca te go rie s: lib e ra to ry m ode ls a nd g e nde r m ode ls . L ib e ra to ry m ode ls d ra w fr o m p o stm ode rn is m a nd M arx is t a nd

crit ic a l th e ory . F ro m th is p e rs p e ctiv e , th e s tr u ctu re s o f s o cie ty , th e s yste m s th at in tr u de o n o ur lif e w orld s, o ppre ss

th ro ugh th e ir p o w er a nd c o ntr o l. T he s tr u ctu re d n atu re o f p o w er r e la tio ns a nd in te rlo ckin g s yste m s o f o ppre ssio n

base d o n g e nde r, r a ce , a nd c la ss a re s e en a s b e in g r e in fo rc e d th ro ugh e duca tio n; th at is , in stit u tio ns o f le arn in g

and th e c la ssro om it s e lf r e pro duce th e p o w er s tr u ctu re s fo und in s o cie ty a t la rg e . L ib e ra to ry p e dago gy e xa m in e s

ho w th e se s yste m s o f o ppre ssio n a re r e pro duce d a nd r e sis te d in e duca tio n. W e a sk, fo r e xa m ple , w hy W hit e

male s te nd to d o m in ate a c la ssro om d is cu ssio n (r e pro ductio n), o r w hy B la ck w ork in g-c la ss w om en s h un fo rm al

educa tio n (r e sis ta nce ). L ib e ra to ry fe m in is t e duca to rs a tte m pt to r e co ve r w om en's v o ic e s, e xp e rie nce s, a nd

vie w po in ts a nd u se th e se to m ake s yste m s o f p riv ile ge , p o w er, a nd o ppre ssio n v is ib le . A lt h o ugh in flu e nce d b y

Fre ir e 's e m ancip ato ry p ra xis a nd M arx is t th e ory , lib e ra to ry fe m in is ts a re c rit ic a l o f th e la ck o f a tte ntio n in th e se

appro ach e s to g e nde r a nd to in te rlo ckin g s yste m s o f o ppre ssio n b ase d o n g e nde r, r a ce , a nd c la ss (G outh ro ,

20 03).

In th e g e nde r m ode l o f fe m in is t p e dago gy, th e fo cu s is o n h o w fe m ale id e ntit y h as b e en s o cia lly c o nstr u cte d to b e

one o f n urtu re r a nd h o w th e in div id ual w om an c a n fin d h e r v o ic e , b e co m in g e m ancip ate d in th e p e rs o nal

psych o lo gic a l s e nse . D ra w in g fr o m p sych o analy tic a nd h um anis tic p sych o lo gy, e duca to rs fr o m th is s ta nce lo ok to

ho w th e e duca tio nal e nvir o nm ent a nd th e le arn in g tr a nsa ctio n c a n b e c o nstr u cte d s o a s to fo ste r w om en's

le arn in g. In th is m ode l, a c o nne cte d a ppro ach to le arn in g is a dvo ca te d, w he re lif e e xp e rie nce s a re v a lu e d, w he re

a w om an c a n c o m e to h ave a v o ic e , a nd h e nce , a n id e ntit y . “ If a w om an is to c o nsid e r h e rs e lf a r e al k n o w er, s h e

must fin d a cce pta nce fo r h e r id e as in th e p ublic w orld ” (B ele nky, C lin ch y, G old be rg e r, & T aru le , 19 86 , p . 2 20 ). T he

public w orld b e gin s w it h a s a fe c la ssro om w he re m em be rs c a n s u ppo rt a nd n urtu re e ach o th e r. T his c o nne cte d

envir o nm ent w ill h e lp w om en d e ve lo p th e ir o w n v o ic e s a nd s e e th e m se lv e s a s c a pable o f b e in g c o nstr u cto rs o f

kn o w le dge r a th e r th an ju st r e cip ie nts . In th e ir b o ok

Know le dge, D if fe re nce , a nd P ow er: E ssa ys In sp ir e d b y W om en's

Ways o f K now in g

(19 96), G old be rg e r, T aru le , C lin ch y, a nd B ele nky c o nsid e r h o w to w ed c o nne cte d a nd s e para te

kn o w in g, w hat c o lla bo ra tiv e k n o w in g m ig ht lo ok lik e , a nd h o w c o lo r, c la ss, a nd d iv e rs it y a ffe ct w om en's le arn in g.

Tis d e ll (19 95, 19 96, 19 98, 2 0 00) h as m ove d fe m in is t p e dago gy fo rw ard b y fo rg in g a s yn th e sis o f th e lib e ra to ry a nd

ge nde r m ode ls th at p ro m ote s b o th p e rs o nal e m ancip atio n a nd p ublic a ctio n. T is d e ll fir s t id e ntif ie s fo ur r e cu rrin g

th e m es in fe m in is t p e dago gy: h o w k n o w le dge is c o nstr u cte d, th e d e ve lo pm ent o f v o ic e , th e a uth o rit y o f th e

te ach e r a nd s tu de nts , a nd d e alin g w it h d if fe re nce s. S he fin ds th e lib e ra to ry m ode l p artic u la rly s tr o ng o n

re co gniz in g d if fe re nce s b ase d o n r a ce , c la ss, a nd g e nde r; n e ve rth e le ss, s u ch th e orie s “ fo cu s to o m uch o n

str u ctu re s, a nd d o n o t a cco unt fo r th e in div id ual's c a pacit y fo r a ge ncy, th e c a pacit y to h ave s o m e c o ntr o l o uts id e o f

th e se s o cia l s tr u ctu re s” (19 96, p . 3 10 ). T he g e nde r o r p sych o lo gic a l m ode l, in c o ntr a st, b e ca use it te nds to

em phasiz e s im ila rit ie s a m ong w om en, d o es n o t m uch a cco unt fo r d if fe re nce s a m ong w om en o r d if fe re nce s in

po w er r e la tio ns b ase d o n r a ce , c la ss, s e xu al o rie nta tio n, a nd s o o n. T he w ay to ta ke in to a cco unt a ll fo ur th e m es,

Tis d e ll p ro po se s, is th ro ugh a p o sts tr u ctu ra l fe m in is t p e dago gy, w hic h w eds th e p sych o lo gic a l o rie nta tio n o f th e

ge nde r m ode l w it h th e s tr u ctu ra l fa cto rs o f th e lib e ra to ry p e rs p e ctiv e . T is d e ll (19 96, p . 3 11) e xp la in s:

A s yn th esis o f t h ese m odels in t h e f o rm o f p osts tru ctu ra l f e m in is t p edagogie s w ould t a ke in to a cco unt b oth t h e

in te lle ctu al a nd e m otio nal c o m ponents o f le arn in g, t h e in div id ual's c a pacit y f o r a gency, a s w ell a s t h e p sych olo gic a l a nd

so cia l a nd p olit ic a l f a cto rs t h at a ffe ct le arn in g. It w ould e m phasiz e t h e im porta nce o f r e la tio nsh ip a nd c o nnectio n t o

le arn in g, b ut a ls o a cco unt f o r t h e f a ct t h at p ow er r e la tio ns b ase d o n a m ult it u de o f f a cto rs in clu din g g ender, r a ce , a nd

cla ss a re a lw ays p re se nt in t h e le arn in g e nvir o nm ent a nd a ffe ct b oth h ow k now le dge is c o nstru cte d o n t h e in div id ual le ve l

as w ell a s t h e s o cia l a nd p olit ic a l f a cto rs t h at a ffe ct w hat c o unts a s “ o ffic ia l” k now le dge a nd h ow it is d is se m in ate d.

Tis d e ll's p o sts tr u ctu ra l fe m in is t p e dago gy m ode l h as s e ve ra l im plic a tio ns fo r th e te ach in g a nd le arn in g tr a nsa ctio n.

Fir s t, it s p e aks to d if fe re nce s a m ong le arn e rs th e m se lv e s: “ M ost w om en a nd s o m e m en m ay h ave d if fe re nt

le arn in g n e eds fr o m m en w ho r e pre se nt th e d o m in ant c u lt u re ” (19 95, p . 7 3). S eco nd, th e re is a tte ntio n g iv e n to th e

h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?

u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /c ritic a l_ th eory _ postm odern _and_fe m in is t_ pers p ectiv e s/0 ro le o f p o w er in th e c o nstr u ctio n o f k n o w le dge it s e lf — po w er's r o le in h o w k n o w le dge is s h ape d a nd d is se m in ate d

in th e c la ssro om , a nd in s o cie ty a t la rg e . T hir d , a p o sts tr u ctu ra l p e dago gy, o r w hat T is d e ll (19 95) a ls o c a lls

po sit io nal p e dago gy, e xa m in e s h o w “ v a rio us p o sit io nalit ie s— th e g e nde r, r a ce , c la ss, s e xu al o rie nta tio n— of b o th

th e p artic ip ants a nd th e in str u cto r m atte r a nd h ave a n e ffe ct o n th e le arn in g e nvir o nm ent” (p . 7 5). F in ally , th is

pe rs p e ctiv e p ro ble m atiz e s th e p o w er a nd a uth o rit y o f th e te ach e r a nd c o nsid e rs th e r a m if ic a tio ns o f r e dis tr ib utin g

th is p o w er.

Tis d e ll's p o sts tr u ctu ra lis t fe m in is t p e dago gy m ode l h ig hlig hts c o nne ctio ns: c o nne ctio ns b e tw een “ th e in div id ual a nd

th e in te rs e ctin g s tr u ctu ra l s yste m s o f p riv ile ge a nd o ppre ssio n” a nd c o nne ctio ns b e tw een “ o ne 's in div id ual

(c o nsta ntly s h if tin g) id e ntit y a nd s o cia l s tr u ctu re s” (19 98, p . 14 6). S he s u gge sts h o w th e se c o nne ctio ns m ig ht le ad to

ch ange in a n a dult le arn in g s e ttin g:

As le arn ers e xa m in e h ow s o cia l s yste m s o f p riv ile ge a nd o ppre ssio n h ave a ffe cte d t h eir o w n id entit y , in clu din g t h eir

belie fs a nd v a lu es, t h e “ d is co urs e ” is d is ru pte d, t h us s h if tin g t h eir id entit y , a s w ell a s in cre asin g t h eir c a pacit y f o r a gency.

For e xa m ple , if o ne h as e m bra ce d s o cie ta l p re scrip tio ns o f p artic u la r g ender r o le s (o r r a ce r o le s, o r s e xu al r o le s t h at a re

exclu siv e ly h ete ro se xu al), a nd o ne b eco m es c o nscio us o f a nd e xa m in es t h e s o cia l c o nstru ctio n o f s u ch r o le s, o ne's

id entit y is lik ely t o s h if t, a nd o ne c o uld d eve lo p n ew w ays o f a ctin g in t h e w orld . O ne a ls o b egin s t o s e e t h at t h ere a re

dif fe re nt “ tru th s” a nd p erh aps n ot o ne “ T ru th ,” a nd t h at s o cia l s yste m s h ave a llo w ed m em bers o f p riv ile ged g ro ups t o

co ntro l w hat h as c o unte d a s “ k now le dge” in d ete rm in in g t h e o ffic ia l c u rric u lu m t h ro ugh t h e p olit ic s o f t h e k now le dge

pro ductio n p ro ce ss. [T is d ell, 1 9 98, p . 1 4 6 ]

Weile r (19 96) id e ntif ie s th re e is su e s fr o m w hic h a fe m in is t p e dago gy c a n b e fo rg e d. T he fir s t is th e r o le a nd

auth o rit y o f th e te ach e r. T he te nsio n b e tw een fe m in is t te ach e rs ’ n e ed “ to c la im a uth o rit y in a s o cie ty th at d e nie s it

to th e m ” (p . 13 9 ) a nd th e s h arin g o f a uth o rit y in th e c o m munit y o f th e c la ssro om n e eds to b e a ddre sse d. L e e a nd

Jo hnso n-B aile y (2 0 04) p o in t o ut th e c o m ple xit y o f s h arin g a uth o rit y w he n th e in str u cto r is b o th fe m ale a nd a

pe rs o n o f c o lo r: “ In ste ad o f s h arin g o ur lim it e d p o w er a nd a uth o rit y , w e b e lie ve it is fir s t e sse ntia l to c la im o ur

po w er a nd a uth o rit y in th e c la ss. C la im in g th is a uth o rit y p urp o se ly is n e ve r e asy, p artic u la rly w he n o ur s tu de nts

alr e ady s e e u s a s a ca de m ic im po sto rs o r fe el th re ate ne d b y o ur p o sit io n” (p . 6 2). S eco nd, s p ace n e eds to b e

made fo r p e rs o nal e xp e rie nce a s a s o urc e o f k n o w le dge a nd tr u th — ho w m uch s p ace a nd w hat k in d o f s p ace in

re gard to o th e r s o urc e s o f k n o w le dge n e ed to b e n e go tia te d. W eile r c it e s th e B la ck le sb ia n fe m in is t A udre L o rd e

in a rtic u la tin g th e c h alle nge o f in co rp o ra tin g fe elin gs, “ th o se h id de n s o urc e s o f p o w er fr o m w he re tr u e k n o w le dge

and, th e re fo re , la stin g a ctio n c o m es,” in to th e d is co urs e a ro und ty p e s o f k n o w le dge (c it e d b y W eile r, 19 96, p . 14 2).

The th ir d is su e fo r W eile r is th e q ue stio n o f d if fe re nce . T he re is n o u nit a ry , u niv e rs a l w om en's e xp e rie nce o n

whic h to b ase a p e dago gy o f p ra ctic e . W om en w ho h ave b e en m arg in aliz e d a nd o ppre sse d b y th e d o m in ant

so cie ty , b y th e d o m in ant fe m ale n o rm s, h ave h ad v e ry d if fe re nt e xp e rie nce s fr o m th o se o f th e m ain str e am . “ T he

tu rn in g to e xp e rie nce th us r e ve als n o t a u niv e rs a l a nd c o m mon w om en's e sse nce , b ut, r a th e r, d e ep d iv is io ns in

what d if fe re nt w om en h ave e xp e rie nce d, a nd in th e k in ds o f k n o w le dge th e y d is co ve r w he n th e y e xa m in e th e ir

ow n e xp e rie nce . T he r e co gnit io n o f th e d if fe re nce s a m ong w om en r a is e s s e rio us c h alle nge s to fe m in is t

pe dago gy” (W eile r, 19 96, p . 14 5). B ro w n, C erv e ro , a nd J o hnso n-B aile y's (2 0 00) s tu dy o f r a ce , g e nde r, a nd te ach in g

in th e a dult e duca tio n c la ssro om u nde rs co re s W eile r's p o in t. T he y fo und th at “ th e p ra ctic e s o f A fr ic a n A m eric a n

wom en p o sts e co ndary m ath e m atic s te ach e rs a re s ig nif ic a ntly a ffe cte d b y th e ir r a ce a nd g e nde r … d is p e l[ in g] th e

myth o f th e u niv e rs a l te ach e r” (p . 2 86 ).

The w ork o f T is d e ll a nd W eile r is p art o f a n e xp andin g b o dy o f lit e ra tu re in a dult e duca tio n th at a ddre sse s v a rio us

asp e cts o f a dult te ach in g a nd le arn in g c o nte xts fr o m a fe m in is t p e dago gy p e rs p e ctiv e . A n um be r o f w rit e rs h ave

re se arc h e d a nd p re se nte d g uid e lin e s fo r e sta blis h in g c o lla bo ra tiv e a nd c o nne cte d le arn in g e nvir o nm ents .

Sta lk e r's (19 93b) fe m in is t a naly sis o f w om en te ach e rs ’ m ento rin g w om en le arn e rs c e nte rs o n w om en a ca de m ic s’

lo ca tio n in a p atr ia rc h al s yste m . S ta lk e r (19 93a) a ls o e xa m in e d s e xu al h ara ssm ent in th e a dult le arn e r-te ach e r

re la tio nsh ip a s a fu nctio n o f u ne qual p o w er, a uth o rit y , a nd c o ntr o l. S im ila rly , J a rv is a nd Z uka s (19 98) c o nducte d a

fe m in is t a naly sis o f te ach in g, r e se arc h , a nd s u pe rv is io n in a dult e duca tio n, a nd B ie re m a a nd C se h (2 0 03) a naly ze d

hum an r e so urc e d e ve lo pm ent r e se arc h fr o m a fe m in is t p e rs p e ctiv e . F in ally , G outh ro a nd G ra ce (2 0 00) u se

“p o sit io nal” m ode ls o f fe m in is t p e dago gy to a naly ze g ra duate w om en's e xp e rie nce s in a dult a nd h ig he r e duca tio n.

h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?

u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /c ritic a l_ th eory _ postm odern _and_fe m in is t_ pers p ectiv e s/0 The y c o nclu de th at th e se m ode ls c a n b rin g a bo ut a m ore r e le va nt g ra duate e xp e rie nce fo r w om en th at m ig ht

in clu de “ c h ange s in th e g o als a nd o bje ctiv e s g ra duate s tu de nts s e t fo r th e m se lv e s, c h ange s in th e tim e it ta ke s to

fin is h g ra duate s ch o ol, a lt e re d s tu de nt p e rc e ptio ns o f th e r o le a nd p urp o se o f g ra duate e duca tio n, a nd a lt e re d

re se arc h in te re sts a nd jo b a nd c a re er a m bit io ns” (p . 13 7).

Wit h fe w e xce ptio ns, c rit ic a l th e ory a nd p o stm ode rn is m o ffe r lit tle g uid ance o n h o w to m anage th e te ach in g a nd

le arn in g e nco unte r to e ffe ct th e th e ory 's d e sir e d e nds. T he re is m uch m ore in th e fe m in is t p e dago gy lit e ra tu re , a s

th e R efe re nce s in dic a te . L e e a nd J o hnso n-B aile y (2 0 04) s u gge st th e fo llo w in g s tr a te gie s: u sin g q ue stio nin g a nd

gro up d e brie fin g, u sin g te ch no lo gy to m anage s e nsit iv e d is cu ssio ns, c la im in g a uth o rit y a s th e in str u cto r, fa cilit a tin g

th e p ro ce ss o f u nde rs ta ndin g n e w a nd c o ntr a dic to ry k n o w le dge , a nd s e le ctin g c u lt u ra lly d iv e rs e m ate ria ls . T is d e ll

(19 93, 19 95, 19 98) a ls o in clu de s th e lit e ra tu re o n m ult ic u lt u ra l e duca tio n in h e r s u gge stio ns fo r c re atin g in clu siv e

le arn in g e nvir o nm ents :

In te gra te a ffe ctiv e a nd e xp e rie ntia l k n o w le dge w it h th e ore tic a l c o nce pts

Pay a tte ntio n to th e p o w er r e la tio ns in he re nt in k n o w le dge p ro ductio n.

Be a w are th at p artic ip ants a re p o sit io ne d d if fe re ntly in r e la tio nsh ip to e ach o th e r a nd to th e k n o w le dge

be in g a cq uir e d.

Ackn o w le dge th e p o w er d is p arit y b e tw een th e te ach e r/fa cilit a to r a nd th e s tu de nts .

Id e ntif y a ll s ta ke ho ld e rs a nd th e ir p o sit io nalit y in th e e duca tio nal p ro gra m .

Consid e r th e le ve ls o f in clu siv it y a nd th e le ve ls o f c o nte xts in vo lv e d in th e e duca tio nal a ctiv it y .

Consid e r h o w c u rric u la r c h o ic e s im plic it ly o r e xp lic it ly c o ntr ib ute to c h alle ngin g s tr u ctu re d p o w er r e la tio ns.

Ado pt e m ancip ato ry te ach in g s tr a te gie s.

Be c o nscio us o f th e w ays in w hic h u nco nscio us b e havio r c o ntr ib ute s to c h alle ngin g o r r e pro ducin g u ne qual

po w er r e la tio ns.

Build a c o m munit y b ase d o n b o th o pe nne ss a nd in te lle ctu al r ig o r to c re ate a d e m ocra tic c la ssro om . [T is d e ll,

19 95, p . 9 0]

In s u m mary , o f th e th re e th e ore tic a l o rie nta tio ns o f c rit ic a l th e ory , p o stm ode rn is m , a nd fe m in is t th e ory /fe m in is t

pe dago gy r e vie w ed in th e s e co nd h alf o f th is c h apte r, fe m in is t p e dago gy h as m ost d ir e ctly a ddre sse d th e p ra ctic e

of a dult e duca tio n a nd in p artic u la r th e te ach in g-le arn in g tr a nsa ctio n in th e c la ssro om . C rit ic a l th e ory a nd

po stm ode rn is m fo cu s m ore o n c rit iq ue a nd q ue stio nin g o f th e s ta tu s q uo . A fe w w rit e rs h ave a tte m pte d w hat G ra ce

(19 96a) c a lls “ a n e cle ctic th e ore tic a l s ca ffo ld in g … u sin g in sig hts fr o m d is co urs e s in clu din g c rit ic a l th e ory , fe m in is m ,

and p o stm ode rn is m ” (p . 14 5). H is m ode l is b ase d o n s e ve ra l a ssu m ptio ns n e ce ssa ry fo r b uild in g a n a dult le arn in g

co m munit y . H e s u gge sts th at a ctu al c la ssro om p ra ctic e s m ust a ckn o w le dge p e rs o nal e xp e rie nce a lo ng w it h

th e ore tic a l a naly se s th ro ugh b e in g s e nsit iv e to in te rs e ctio ns o f p o w er “ w he re r a ce , e th nic it y , c la ss, g e nde r, s e xu al

orie nta tio n, a ble ne ss, a nd a ge im pact le arn in g, lif e , a nd w ork ” (19 96a, p . 14 7), th ro ugh c o nflic t a nd d ia lo gue , a nd

th ro ugh p ra ctic e s th at a re in clu sio nary o f th e d iv e rs it y o f p e ople s a nd th e ir k n o w le dge .

SU M MARY

In th is c h apte r w e h ave p re se nte d a n o ve rv ie w o f s e ve ra l c o nte m po ra ry p e rs p e ctiv e s o n a dult le arn in g, a ll o f

whic h d e al w it h c rit iq ue a nd p o w er r e la tio ns. T he m ound o f w rit in g a nd r e se arc h , th e p le th o ra o f v ie w po in ts , a nd

th e c o m ple xit y a nd d e nsit y o f la nguage a nd c o nce pts th at m ake u p th is p e rs p e ctiv e h ave m ade th is e ffo rt a

dauntin g o ne . W hat w e h ave d o ne is to s ke tc h th e o utlin e s, n am e s o m e o f th e m ain c o nce pts a nd p la ye rs , a nd

dra w in g fr o m th e w ork o f c o lle ague s in a dult e duca tio n, s h o w h o w th is p e rs p e ctiv e is s h apin g o ur u nde rs ta ndin g o f

adult le arn in g a nd a dult e duca tio n p ra ctic e .

To th is e nd, a nd d ra w in g fr o m M arx is t th e ory , c rit ic a l th e ory , m ult ic u lt u ra lis m , c rit ic a l r a ce th e ory , p o stm ode rn is m ,

h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?

u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /c ritic a l_ th eory _ postm odern _and_fe m in is t_ pers p ectiv e s/0 and fe m in is t th e ory , w e b rie fly d is cu sse d th re e th e m es th at c h ara cte riz e th is p e rs p e ctiv e . T he fir s t th e m e— ra ce ,

cla ss, a nd g e nde r— le ads to th e s e co nd th e m e— of h o w th e in te rs e ctio ns o f r a ce , c la ss, a nd g e nde r a ffe ct th e

dis tr ib utio n o f r e so urc e s a nd p o w er s o th at s o m e g ro ups in o ur s o cie ty a re p riv ile ge d a nd s o m e a re o ppre sse d.

The th ir d th e m e— kn o w le dge a nd tr u th — co nsid e rs th e n atu re a nd c o nstr u ctio n o f k n o w le dge a s it r e la te s to

le arn in g.

The s e co nd h alf o f th e c h apte r r e vie w ed c rit ic a l th e ory , p o st-m ode rn is m , a nd fe m in is t p e dago gy a nd th e ir

co ntr ib utio ns to u nde rs ta ndin g a dult le arn in g. D ra w in g fr o m W elt o n's (19 93) fr a m ew ork , s e ve ra l a sp e cts o f c rit ic a l

th e ory w ere d is cu sse d: H abe rm as's th re e d is tin ct ty p e s o f k n o w le dge a nd th e c o ndit io ns n e ce ssa ry fo r id e al

dis co urs e , h o w to m ake in stit u tio ns s it e s fo r le arn in g, a nd th e r e la tio nsh ip b e tw een s yste m ic fo rc e s b ase d o n

mone y a nd p o w er a nd th e e ve ry d ay lif e w orld o f a dult s .

Postm ode rn is m c h alle nge s th e c e rta in ty a nd r a tio nalit y th at c h ara cte riz e m ode rn it y . U nce rta in ty , d iv e rs it y , a nd

mult ip lic it y c a n b e fr a gm entin g a nd d is e m po w erin g fo r s o m e, e ne rg iz in g a nd p o w erfu l fo r o th e rs . P ostm ode rn it y 's

majo r c o ntr ib utio n to a dult e duca tio n h as b e en to b rin g to th e fo re gro und p re vio usly o ppre sse d a nd m arg in aliz e d

gro ups.

Fin ally , fe m in is t p e dago gy— th e a pplic a tio n o f fe m in is t th e ory to e duca tio n— was r e vie w ed w it h a tte ntio n to a dult

educa tio n. W hat M ahe r (19 87) c a te go riz e s a s lib e ra to ry (fo cu sin g o n s o cia l s tr u ctu re s) a nd g e nde r (e m phasiz in g

th e p sych o lo gic a l) m ode ls o f fe m in is t p e dago gy w ere p re se nte d, fo llo w ed b y T is d e ll's (19 95, 19 96, 19 98) s yn th e sis

of th e tw o in to a p o sts tr u ctu ra l m ode l o f fe m in is t p e dago gy. T he w ork o f a dult e duca to rs in a pply in g fe m in is t

pe dago gy to a dult le arn in g tr a nsa ctio ns a nd c o nte xts w as a ls o r e vie w ed.

20 07 b y J o hn W ile y & S ons, In c. A ll r ig hts r e se rv e d.

h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?

u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /c ritic a l_ th eory _ postm odern _and_fe m in is t_ pers p ectiv e s/0 APA

Crit ic a l th e ory , p o stm ode rn , a nd fe m in is t p e rs p e ctiv e s. (2 0 07). In S . B . M erria m , R . S . C affa re lla , & L . M . B aum gartn e r,

Le arn in g in a dult h ood: a c o m pre hensiv e g uid e

(3 rd e d.) . H obo ke n, N J: W ile y. R etr ie ve d fr o m

http :/ /lib e zp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?

url= h ttp :/ /s e arc h .c re do re fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /c rit ic a l_ th e ory _ po stm ode rn _and_fe m in is t_ pe rs p e ctiv e s/0 ?

in stit u tio nId =4 63

Chic ag o

"C rit ic a l T he ory , P ostm ode rn , a nd F e m in is t P ers p e ctiv e s." In

Le arn in g in A dult h ood: A C om pre hensiv e G uid e

, b y

Shara n B . M erria m , R ose m ary S . C affa re lla , a nd L is a M . B aum gartn e r. 3 rd e d. W ile y, 2 0 07.

http :/ /lib e zp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?

url= h ttp :/ /s e arc h .c re do re fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /c rit ic a l_ th e ory _ po stm ode rn _and_fe m in is t_ pe rs p e ctiv e s/0 ?

in stit u tio nId =4 63

H arv ard

Crit ic a l th e ory , p o stm ode rn , a nd fe m in is t p e rs p e ctiv e s. (2 0 07). In S .B . M erria m , R .S . C affa re lla & L .M . B aum gartn e r,

Le arn in g in a dult h ood: a c o m pre hensiv e g uid e

. (3 rd e d.) . [O nlin e ]. H obo ke n: W ile y. A va ila ble fr o m :

http :/ /lib e zp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?

url= h ttp :/ /s e arc h .c re do re fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /c rit ic a l_ th e ory _ po stm ode rn _and_fe m in is t_ pe rs p e ctiv e s/0 ?

in stit u tio nId =4 63 [A cce sse d 2 8 J u ly 2 0 17 ].

M LA

"C rit ic a l T he ory , P ostm ode rn , a nd F e m in is t P ers p e ctiv e s."

Le arn in g in A dult h ood: A C om pre hensiv e G uid e

, S hara n B .

Merria m , e t a l., W ile y, 3 rd e dit io n, 2 0 07.

Cre do R efe re nce

, h ttp :/ /lib e zp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?

url= h ttp :/ /s e arc h .c re do re fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /c rit ic a l_ th e ory _ po stm ode rn _and_fe m in is t_ pe rs p e ctiv e s/0 ?

in stit u tio nId =4 63. A cce sse d 2 8 J u l 2 0 17 .

h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?

u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /c ritic a l_ th eory _ postm odern _and_fe m in is t_ pers p ectiv e s/0