3 Questions 200 Words Each APA Writing & References & TURNITIN Required DUE IN 1 HOUR
LEA R N IN G A N D K N OW IN G: N ON -W EST ER N P ER SP EC T IV ES
in
NEW ER A PPRO ACH ES T O A D ULT L E A RN IN G
fr o m
Le arn in g in A dult h ood: A C om pre hensiv e G uid e
Vie w a rtic le o n
Cre do
The n ew born in fa nt o nly h ours o ld is h anded t o t h e f a th er w ho w his p ers in to t h e n ew born 's e ar, “ G od is G re at. I b ear
wit n ess t h ere is n o G od b ut t h e o ne t ru e G od.” S o b egin s t h e M uslim 's lif e jo urn ey. It is a jo urn ey o f lif e lo ng le arn in g
and d is co ve ry , a jo urn ey d urin g w hic h e ve ry M uslim d is co ve rs t h e g re atn ess o f G od t h ro ugh t h e b eautie s a nd
wonders o f H is c re atio n
.—
MAZA LA N K A M IS
Fo r th o se o f th e Is la m ic fa it h , le arn in g is in de ed lif e lo ng. It is a ls o c o nsid e re d a s a cre d o blig atio n to le arn n o t
fo r p e rs o nal b e ne fit , b ut fo r s h arin g w it h th e w ho le c o m munit y . U nfo rtu nate ly , w e k n o w lit tle a bo ut th is
pe rs p e ctiv e a nd o th e r e pis te m olo gic a l s yste m s a s w e a re im mers e d in o ur o w n W este rn o rie nta tio n to
le arn in g a nd k n o w in g. In de ed, th is e dit io n o f
Le arn in g in A dult h ood
is p rim arily lo dge d in W este rn v a lu e s a nd
cu lt u re .
Begin nin g w it h th e 19 28 p ublic a tio n o f T ho rn dik e e t a l.'s la ndm ark s tu dy o f a dult le arn in g (T ho rn dik e , B re gm an,
Tilt o n, & W oodya rd , 19 28), th e k n o w le dge b ase th at h as d e ve lo pe d a ro und le arn in g a nd a dult le arn in g h as
be en s h ape d b y w hat c o unts a s k n o w le dge in a W este rn p ara dig m . R ese arc h a nd th e ory in a dult le arn in g to a
la rg e e xte nt a ssu m es th at th e m in d a nd b o dy a re s p lit , th us le adin g to a n e m phasis o n c o gnit io n, in fo rm atio n
pro ce ssin g, in te llig e nce m easu re s, c o gnit iv e d e ve lo pm ent, a nd s o o n. E m be dde d in th is fo cu s a re th e c u lt u ra l
va lu e s o f p riv ile gin g th e
in div id ual
le arn e r o ve r th e c o lle ctiv e , a nd p ro m otin g
auto nom y a nd in dependence
o f
th o ught a nd a ctio n o ve r c o m munit y a nd in te rd e pe nde nce . A ndra go gy, s e lf -d ir e cte d le arn in g, a nd m uch o f th e
lit e ra tu re o n tr a nsfo rm atio nal le arn in g p o sit io n s e lf -d ir e ctio n, in de pe nde nce , r a tio nal d is co urs e , a nd r e fle ctiv e
th o ught a s p in nacle s o f a dult le arn in g th e ory .
That W este rn n o tio ns o f a dult le arn in g d o m in ate is e vid e nce d b y th e u se o f W este rn te xtb o oks, jo urn als , a nd
co nfe re nce p ro ce edin gs in a ca de m ic a dult e duca tio n p ro gra m s n o t o nly in N orth A m eric a b ut in A sia a nd
Afr ic a . In a ddit io n, th e c u rric u lu m th at in te rn atio nal s tu de nts s tu dy in g ra duate p ro gra m s in N orth A m eric a is , o f
co urs e , p rim arily W este rn . W hile th e re is s o m e r e ce nt w ork b y W este rn s ch o la rs o n s p ir it u alit y , e m bo die d o r
so m atic k n o w in g, e m otio ns, a e sth e tic s, a nd th e “ n o nra tio nal,” th e se p e rs p e ctiv e s a re s till v e ry m uch o n th e
marg in s o f th e fie ld (s e e C hapte r E ig ht).
How eve r, w e n e ed o nly lo ok m ore c lo se ly in sid e o ur o w n b o rd e rs , to N ativ e A m eric a ns, fo r e xa m ple , a nd
be yo nd th e b o rd e rs o f N orth A m eric a a nd W este rn E uro pe , to fin d m ajo r s yste m s o f th o ught a nd b e lie fs
em be dde d in e ntir e ly d if fe re nt c u lt u ra l v a lu e s a nd e pis te m olo gic a l s yste m s th at c a n b e d ra w n u po n to e nla rg e
our
u nde rs ta ndin g o f a dult le arn in g. S om e o f th e se s yste m s p re date T ho rn dik e b y th o usa nds o f y e ars a nd
enco m pass th e g re ate r p art o f th e w orld 's p e ople s. F o r e xa m ple , in a s tu dy o f s e lf -d ir e cte d le arn in g in th e
Ko re an c o nte xt, m ost o f th e W este rn v a lu e s w ere r e je cte d (N ah, 2 0 00). R ath e r, “ a p e rs o n b e co m in g
in de pe nde nt o f h is o r h e r p are nts , te ach e rs o r o th e r p e ople , te nds to b e c o nsid e re d th re ate nin g [to ] th e
sta bilit y o f a c o m munit y h e o r s h e b e lo ngs to …. B eco m in g in de pe nde nt w it h o ut b e in g in te rd e pe nde nt p asse s
fo r im matu rit y o r s e lf -c e nte re dne ss” (p . 18 ). M ore ove r, in a c o untr y th at h as fa ce d n um ero us e ne m ie s,
“c o lle ctiv is m a nd c o lla bo ra tio n a re ta ught fr o m o ne 's c h ild ho od a s o ne o f th e m ost im po rta nt s u rv iv a l s kills a nd
mora l v ir tu e s” (p . 18 ).
In y e t a no th e r e xa m ple , th e n o tio n o f tr a nsfo rm atio nal le arn in g fr o m a B uddhis t th o ught s yste m in vo lv e s
“in cre ase d in sig ht in to th e n atu re o f r e alit y r e su lt [in g] in a n u nde rs ta ndin g o f th e in te rc o nne ctio n o f a ll liv in g
be in gs a nd a d e cre ase in h um an s u ffe rin g” (B ro oks, 2 0 00, p . 16 6). B ro oks g o es o n to p o in t o ut th at “ a lt h o ugh
h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?
u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /le arn in g_and_kn ow in g_non_w este rn _pers p ectiv e s/0 Buddhis m is a p art o f m ain str e am in stit u tio nal c u lt u re in m any A sia n n atio ns, it s ta nds a s a n a lt e rn ativ e to th e
main str e am in th e W est” (p . 16 6).
This c h apte r h as a n um be r o f p urp o se s. F ir s t, w e in tr o duce r e ade rs to th e v a lu e o f le arn in g a bo ut o th e r
pe rs p e ctiv e s. S eco nd, w e d is cu ss s o m e k e y c o nce pts in vo lv e d in th is e nde avo r, c o nce pts s u ch a s th e
Weste rn /n o n-W este rn d ic h o to m y it s e lf , e th no ce ntr is m , c u lt u re , a nd in dig e no us k n o w le dge . A t th e c e nte r o f th e
ch apte r a re s h o rt in tr o ductio ns to fiv e d if fe re nt p e rs p e ctiv e s o n le arn in g a nd k n o w in g; th e se fiv e p e rs p e ctiv e s
were fir s t p re se nte d a s a s ym po siu m a t th e 2 0 05 A dult E duca tio n R ese arc h C onfe re nce a nd a re b ut e xa m ple s
of h o w m uch w e h ave to le arn fr o m o th e r s yste m s o f le arn in g. F in ally , w e w ill c lo se w it h s o m e c o m monalit ie s o r
th e m es fo und a cro ss n o n-W este rn p e rs p e ctiv e s th at s ta nd in c o ntr a st to o ur W este rn o rie nta tio n to le arn in g.
W HY S T UD Y O TH ER W AYS O F L E A RN IN G A ND K N O W IN G ?
Som e r e ade rs o f th is b o ok m ig ht a rg ue th at s in ce a W este rn p e rs p e ctiv e d o m in ate s w hat is c o nsid e re d th e
le git im ate k n o w le dge o f a dult le arn in g, w e n e ed n o t b o th e r o urs e lv e s w it h c o nsid e rin g y e t o th e r s yste m s o f
le arn in g. T his v ie w is q uit e e th no ce ntr ic ; th at is , “ th e te nde ncy to v ie w o ne 's o w n c u lt u ra l g ro up a s s u pe rio r to
oth e rs ” (R eagan, 2 0 05, p . 4 ), a nd b e in g e th no ce ntr ic , r e in fo rc e s th e m arg in aliz a tio n a nd o ppre ssio n o f o th e r
syste m s o f k n o w in g. T he p urp o se o f e xa m in in g o th e r s yste m s is n o t to r e pla ce th e W este rn tr a dit io n b ut r a th e r
to
exp and
o ur u nde rs ta ndin g o f le arn in g a nd k n o w in g.
Such e xp o su re c a n a ffe ct o ur p ra ctic e a s a dult e duca to rs in a n um be r o f w ays. F ir s t, w e m ig ht r e th in k o ur
purp o se s a s e duca to rs fr o m la rg e ly tr a nsm it te rs o f “ v a lid ate d W este rn in fo rm atio n” to “ a m ore c o m pe llin g fo rm
of a naly sis … e ngagin g s tu de nts in th e in te rp re ta tio n o f v a rio us k n o w le dge s a nd m ode s o f k n o w le dge
pro ductio n” (S em ali & K in ch e lo e, 19 99, p . 3 4 ). C lo se ly a lig ne d w it h th is p urp o se is th at c o nsid e rin g o th e r w ays
of k n o w in g le ads u s to e xa m in e h o w k n o w le dge is p ro duce d, w ho se in te re sts a re b e in g s e rv e d b y th is
kn o w le dge , a nd h o w k n o w le dge c o m es to b e v a lid ate d o r “ o ffic ia l” (s e e C hapte r T en). “ S uch a n a w are ne ss is
to o o fte n a bse nt in W este rn e duca tio n. In m ain str e am p e dago gie s w e a re ta ught to b e lie ve th at th e
kn o w le dge w e c o nsid e r o ffic ia l a nd v a lid h as b e en p ro duce d in a n e utr a l, n o ble , a nd a lt r u is tic m anne r. S uch a
vie w d is m is se s th e c u lt u ra l a nd p o w er-r e la te d d im ensio ns o f k n o w le dge p ro ductio n” (S em ali & K in ch e lo e,
19 99, p . 3 4 ).
Yet a no th e r p urp o se in b e co m in g fa m ilia r w it h o th e r k n o w le dge s yste m s is th e b e ne fit th is k n o w le dge w ill h ave
in a ffe ctin g o ur p ra ctic e w it h le arn e rs h avin g o th e r th an W este rn w orld vie w s. A nto ne a nd G am lin (2 0 04) fo r
exa m ple , a rg ue th at to b e e ffe ctiv e , lit e ra cy p ro gra m s w it h A bo rig in al p e ople (a te rm th e y u se to r e fe r to F ir s t
Natio ns, In uit , a nd M étis p e rs o ns a nd c o lle ctiv it ie s) m ust b e m ore th an “ re adin g, n um era cy a nd w rit in g w hic h is
ty p ic a lly d ir e cte d to w ard s g ain in g a cce ss to m ain str e am e m plo ym ent” (p . 2 6 ). R ath e r, A bo rig in al lit e ra cy
is a bout s u sta in in g a p artic u la r w orld vie w a nd a bout t h e s u rv iv a l o f a d is tin ct a nd v it a l c u lt u re . B ein g lit e ra te is a bout
re sym boliz in g a nd r e in te rp re tin g p ast e xp erie nce , w hile a t t h e s a m e t im e h onourin g t ra dit io nal v a lu es. B ein g lit e ra te
is a bout
liv in g
t h ese v a lu es in c o nte m pora ry t im es. B ein g lit e ra te is a bout
vis io nin g
a f u tu re in w hic h a n A borig in al
way o f b ein g
w ill c o ntin ue t o t h riv e . M eanin gfu l A borig in al lit e ra cy w ill d eve lo p a nd f in d e xp re ssio n in e ve ry th in g t h at
is d one. C onse quently A borig in al lit e ra cy p ro gra m s m ust r e fle ct a b ro ad a ppro ach t h at r e co gniz e s t h e u niq ue w ays
th at A borig in al p eople r e pre se nt t h eir e xp erie nce a nd k now le dge. [p . 2 6; it a lic s in o rig in al]
Ano th e r e xa m ple o f h o w h avin g s o m e fa m ilia rit y w it h o th e r w orld vie w s c a n a ffe ct o ur p ra ctic e a s a dult
educa to rs is in u nde rs ta ndin g h o w m any A sia n s tu de nts v ie w a sp e cts o f th e te ach in g-le arn in g tr a nsa ctio n.
The ir r e tic e nce to q ue stio n o r s p e ak o ut in o ur c la sse s is d ue to y e ars o f tr a in in g th at s p e akin g o ut m ig ht
ca use s o m eone (th e te ach e r in p artic u la r) to lo se fa ce ; th e a cce pte d s tr a te gy is to p e rs o nally a ppro ach th e
te ach e r o uts id e c la ss. F u rth e r, “ s ile nce is u se d b y e ast A sia n c o lle ctiv is ts a s a n in dic a tio n o f s tr e ngth , p o w er,
and d is a gre em ent, w he re as in div id ualis ts s e e it a s a n in dic a tio n o f w eakn e ss, s h yn e ss, o r tr o uble ” (L iu , 2 0 01, p .
19 0). F in ally , W ang (2 0 06) p o in ts o ut th at fo r a C hin e se s tu de nt, s h arin g s o m eth in g p e rs o nal in o ur a dult
h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?
u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /le arn in g_and_kn ow in g_non_w este rn _pers p ectiv e s/0 educa tio n c la sse s is s e en a s a s ig n o f w eakn e ss, a lo ss o f m anne rs , o r a n a tte m pt to s e ek h e lp .
A fin al v a lu e in e xp andin g o ur u nde rs ta ndin g o f le arn in g to in clu de p e rs p e ctiv e s o uts id e o f o ur tr a dit io nal
Weste rn v ie w s is th at w e w ill b e p e rs o nally e nric h e d. S uch e xp o su re le ads to r e fle ctin g o n o ur o w n id e as in
ne w w ays, a nd h e arin g o th e rs ’ s to rie s a bo ut th e ir le arn in g c o ntr ib ute s to o ur o w n m eanin g-m akin g. W hile w e
ca n
ack now le dge t h at n o s to ry p erfe ctly e vo kes a ll t h at is t ru e a bout o ur liv e s, … w e m ust a ls o a ck now le dge t h at t h e
more s to rie s w e h ave a va ila ble t o u s, t h e r ic h er a re o ur r e so urc e s … t h e m ore v o ic e s a nd n arra tiv e s t o w hic h w e
lis te n, t h e m ore a bundantly w e e xp erie nce o ur liv e s. In f a ct, w e o fte n f in d t h at a s d if fe re nt f ro m o urs e lv e s a s w e m ay
im agin e t h e o th ers w ho c re ate t h ose n arra tiv e s t o b e, w e c a n s till f in d t h at t h e s to rie s f ro m t h eir liv e s r e fle ct
so m eth in g t ru e a bout o ur o w n. In t h at c a se , f o r b oth t h eir d if fe re nce s a nd t h eir s im ila rit ie s, w e c a n h ard ly a ffo rd t o le t
so m e v o ic e s r e m ain m arg in al a nd s ile nce d a nd o th er v o ic e s d om in ate . [B ro oks, 2 000, p . 1 6 9]
Fo r e xa m ple , in o ne o f o ur a dult d e ve lo pm ent c la sse s a n a dult le arn e r fr o m In dia s h are d h e r s to ry o f liv in g w it h
he r p are nts , a s is th e c u sto m , u ntil s h e w as m arrie d a t a ge th ir ty -tw o. S he s a w th is a s a g re at a dva nta ge in h e r
le arn in g to b e a m atu re a dult b e ca use s h e h ad h e r p are nts a s c o nsta nt r o le m ode ls . A t th e s a m e tim e, s h e
ca m e to u nde rs ta nd w hat a gin g m eant fo r o ld e r a dult s a nd d e ve lo pe d b o th c o m passio n a nd a dm ir a tio n fo r th e
old e r g e ne ra tio n.
TH E W ES T ER N /N O N-W ES T ER N D IC H O TO M Y, C ULT URE, A ND IN D IG EN O US
KN O W LE D GE
The re a re a n um be r o f c o nce pts th at a re im po rta nt to c o nsid e r w he n s te ppin g o ut o f o ur W este rn -o nly
pe rs p e ctiv e o n le arn in g. F ir s t to b e c o nsid e re d is th e d ic h o to m y o f W este rn v e rs u s n o n-W este rn . C ult u re a nd
in dig e no us k n o w le dge a re tw o o th e r c o nce pts th at in fo rm th is e ffo rt.
We h ave u se d “ n o n-W este rn ” in th e tit le o f th is c h apte r to c o nve y s o m eth in g d if fe re nt fr o m th e e pis te m olo gy
th at m any la be l “ W este rn ” th at in fo rm s th e r e st o f th is b o ok. T his n o tio n o f d ic h o to m ie s is it s e lf a v e ry W este rn
co nce pt, a fa ct n o t lo st o n u s. D ic h o to m ie s s u ch a s
min d-b ody, n atu re -n urtu re , e m otio n-r e aso n
, a nd
hum an-
anim al
a re in fa ct a n “ o bse ssio n … th at r u ns th ro ugh W este rn in te lle ctu al h is to ry ” (N is b e tt, 2 0 03, p . 15 4 ). A nd, o f
co urs e , th e re a re a n um be r o f a no m alie s in u sin g th e se te rm s— fo r e xa m ple , m any in dig e no us p e ople s o f
North A m eric a d o n o t a dhe re to a “ W este rn ” p e rs p e ctiv e . A ls o p ro ble m atic is th e s u gge stio n th at “ W este rn ” is
th e g o ld s ta ndard a gain st w hic h w e m easu re n o n-W este rn , th us d e priv in g n o n-W este rn e rs o f h avin g le git im ate
kn o w le dge a part fr o m W este rn n o rm s. S o w hy d o w e u se th e se c a te go rie s? A s R eagan (2 0 05, p . 11) n o te s,
“T he b ia se s in he re nt in th e te rm s a re in fa ct a s ig nif ic a nt a nd te llin g c o m po ne nt o f th e p he no m eno n th at w e
are c o nce rn e d w it h s tu dyin g… . T hus, w hat b e gin s a s a fa ls e d ic h o to m y c a n e m erg e a s a n e ffe ctiv e w ay o f
ch alle ngin g a nd r e fo rm in g r a cis t a nd e th no ce ntr ic a ssu m ptio ns a nd b ia se s.”
A W este rn p e rs p e ctiv e is o fte n tr a ce d to c la ssic a l G re ek c u lt u re w he re “ p e rs o nal fr e edo m , in div id ualit y , a nd
obje ctiv e th o ught” (N is b e tt, 2 0 03, p . 3 0 ) w ere d e ve lo pe d, b ro ught to E uro pe , a nd e xte nde d to o th e r p arts o f
th e w orld th ro ugh E uro pe an c o lo niz a tio n. S till g o in g o n to day is th e in te lle ctu al “ c o lo niz a tio n” o f th e w orld ,
la rg e ly th ro ugh W este rn s cie nce . “ A k e y to c o m pre he ndin g th e p o w er o f W este rn s cie nce in vo lv e s it s a bilit y to
de pic t it s fin din gs a s u niv e rs a l k n o w le dge . M ode rn is t s cie nce p ro duce s u niv e rs a l h is to rie s, d e fin e s c iv iliz a tio n,
and d e te rm in e s r e alit y : s u ch c a pabilit ie s le git im ate p artic u la r w ays o f s e ein g a nd, c o ncu rre ntly , d e le git im ate
oth e rs ” (S em ali & K in ch e lo e, 19 99, p . 3 1).
The s e para tio n o f k n o w le dge fr o m it s c o nte xt a nd it s c o dif ic a tio n a cco rd in g to W este rn s cie nce h as h ad a n
im pact o n e duca tio nal th o ught a nd p ra ctic e . W e c o lla pse e duca tio n in to “ s ch o olin g,” fo r e xa m ple , s o th at in
adult e duca tio n le arn e rs h ave a d if fic u lt tim e th in kin g o f th e ir le arn in g a s a nyth in g b ut p artic ip atio n in fo rm al
cla sse s. In fo rm al le arn in g, w hic h a dult s e ngage in o n a d aily b asis , h ard ly c o unts a s “ re al” le arn in g. “ W este rn
epis te m olo gic a l ty ra nny a nd th e o ppre ssiv e e duca tio nal p ra ctic e s th at fo llo w it ” (S em ali & K in ch e lo e, 19 99, p .
h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?
u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /le arn in g_and_kn ow in g_non_w este rn _pers p ectiv e s/0 31) h ave r e su lt e d in o ur o ve rlo okin g r ic h s o urc e s o f k n o w le dge . F o r e xa m ple ,
Weste rn e pis te m olo gic a l e xp orts t o A fric a … t e nd t o lim it r e alit y t o a ppeara nce s w it h w hic h t h ey [W este rn ers ] s e ek t o
ju stif y , m ostly w it h out e xp la natio n, t h e s o -c a lle d a bso lu te a nd ir re fu ta ble t ru th . F or A fric a ns, t h e s e arc h f o r t ru th g oes
beyo nd a ppeara nce s in to s o m e d eep u nders ta ndin g o f w hy t h e t ru th is t ru th . S om etim es t h e s e arc h f o r t ru th m ay b e
mystif ie d a s [w hen] r e co urs e m ay b e m ade t o t ra dit io nal r e lig io us p erfo rm ance s. A m ong t h e Y oru ba in N ig eria , t h e
if a
ora cle o f d iv in atio n m ay b e u se d t o d ete rm in e w hat t h e t ru th is . M agic a l u nders ta ndin g a nd in te rp re ta tio n o f t h e t ru th
is a cce pte d in A fric a a nd t h is is c o nnecte d t o t h e w ay in w hic h p eople k now . [F aso kun, K ata hoir e , & O duara n, 2 005,
pp. 6 3-6 4]
The W este rn /n o n-W este rn d ic h o to m y is o ne m eans o f c o nsid e rin g a lt e rn ativ e p e rs p e ctiv e s to o ur
unde rs ta ndin g o f le arn in g a nd k n o w in g.
Cult u re
is a no th e r, w hic h is o f c o urs e p art o f d e fin in g W este rn a nd
no n-W este rn p e rs p e ctiv e s. T he re a re a s m any d e fin it io ns o f c u lt u re a s th e re a re in div id uals w ho w rit e a bo ut it .
Basic a lly , c u lt u re c o nsis ts o f th e s h are d b e havio r a nd s ym bo lic m eanin g s yste m s o f a g ro up o f p e ople . It is , a s
Hofs te de (19 84 , p . 5 1) w rit e s, “ th e c o lle ctiv e p ro gra m min g o f th e m in d w hic h d is tin guis h e s th e m em be rs o f o ne
ca te go ry o f p e ople fr o m a no th e r.” B anks a nd B anks (19 97, p . 8 ) h ave m ore r e ce ntly d e fin e d it a s fo llo w s:
The e sse nce o f a c u lt u re is n ot it s a rtif a cts , t o ols , o r o th er t a ngib le c u lt u ra l e le m ents b ut h ow t h e m em bers o f t h e
gro up in te rp re t, u se , a nd p erc e iv e t h em . It is t h e v a lu es, s ym bols , in te rp re ta tio ns, a nd p ers p ectiv e s t h at d is tin guis h
one p eople f ro m a noth er in m odern iz e d s o cie tie s; it is n ot m ate ria l o bje cts a nd o th er t a ngib le a sp ects o f h um an
so cie tie s.
While w e o fte n lin k “ W este rn ” a nd “ c u lt u re ” to ge th e r, “ th e re is n o s in gle ‘W este rn ’ c u lt u re in a ny r e ally
meanin gfu l s e nse ; r a th e r, th e re a re m any d if fe re nt a nd d is tin ct c u lt u re s th at s h are c e rta in e le m ents o f a
co m mon h is to ric a l b ackg ro und th at a re m anif e ste d in d if fe re nt w ays in th e p re se nt” (R eagan, 2 0 05, p . 3 7).
What lin kin g “ W este rn ” a nd “ n o n-W este rn ” to c u lt u re d o es is to p ro vid e a k in d o f s h o rth and fo r c o m parin g tw o
epis te m olo gic a l s yste m s. F o r e xa m ple , J e ge de (19 99) p re se nts a ta ble c o m parin g A fr ic a n a nd W este rn s yste m s
of th o ught. In A fr ic a n c u lt u re “ o ra lit y p re do m in ate s,” w he re as in W este rn th o ught k n o w le dge is “ d o cu m ente d.”
Sim ila rly , in A fr ic a , “ le arn in g is c o m munal,” b ut in th e W est, “ le arn in g is a n in div id ual e nte rp ris e ” (p . 12 5).
Abdulla h (19 96), a m anage m ent c o nsu lt a nt in M ala ysia , c o m pare s w hat s h e c a lls “ in div id ualis tic ” o r “ m ore
Weste rn ” w it h “ c o lle ctiv is tic ” o r “ m ore E aste rn ” c u lt u ra l in te rp re ta tio ns o f v a lu e s. W it h r e gard to g ro up v e rs u s
in div id ual p re fe re nce , fo r e xa m ple , “ W este rn e rs ” v a lu e fr e edo m a nd in de pe nde nce w he re as “ E aste rn e rs ”
va lu e b e lo ngin g, h arm ony, fa m ily , s e cu rit y , a nd g uid ance ; s u cce ss in th e W est is m ate ria lis tic b ut in th e E ast it is
re la tio nsh ip - o r fr ie ndsh ip -b ase d. T he c o m munic a tio n s ty le in a m ore W este rn c u lt u ra l o rie nta tio n is d ir e ct, to
th e p o in t, a nd e m phasiz e s c la rit y ; in a m ore E aste rn c u lt u re c o m munic a tio n is s u btle , in dir e ct, a nd o fte n
em plo ys a th ir d p arty . U nde rs ta ndin g th e se a nd o th e r d if fe re nce s in v a lu e s, A bdulla h p o in ts o ut, is c ru cia l to
managin g a m ult in atio nal a nd m ult ic u lt u ra l w ork p la ce .
What a re p re se nte d a s “ W este rn ” o r “ A fr ic a n” o r “ E aste rn ” v a lu e s a nd s yste m s o f th o ught c a ptu re , im pe rfe ctly
of c o urs e , s o m e o f th e d if fe re nce s th at in tu rn a ffe ct n o t o nly h o w w e s e e th e w orld b ut h o w le arn in g
exp e rie nce s a re in te rp re te d. F o r e xa m ple , in a s tu dy o f th e r o le o f c u lt u ra l v a lu e s in s h apin g o ld e r a dult
le arn in g in M ala ysia , p artic ip ants s p o ke o f le arn in g a s a s p ir it u al o r p hilo so phic a l q ue st, a nd a s “ a r e sp o nsib ilit y
and a m eans o f g iv in g b ack to th e ir c o m munit ie s” (M erria m & M uham ad, 2 0 00, p . 6 0).
A th ir d c o nce pt im po rta nt fo r u nde rs ta ndin g le arn in g a nd k n o w in g fr o m n o n-W este rn p e rs p e ctiv e s is th at o f
in dig enous k n ow le dge.
L ik e c u lt u re , in dig e no us k n o w le dge h as b e en d e fin e d in n um ero us w ays. M ost
de fin it io ns c o nsid e r it “ lo ca l o r c o m munit y k n o w le dge th at is c o m monly g e ne ra te d a nd tr a nsm it te d o ve r a
pe rio d o f tim e in g e ogra phic a nd h is to ric s p ace ” (F a so ku n, K ata ho ir e , & O duara n, 2 0 05, p . 6 1). It is k n o w le dge
h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?
u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /le arn in g_and_kn ow in g_non_w este rn _pers p ectiv e s/0 ge ne ra te d to d e al w it h lo ca l p ro ble m s a nd is su e s “ re la te d to h e alt h , fa rm in g, w arfa re , e duca tio n, c u lt u re a nd
th e e nvir o nm ent” (p . 6 1). T his is k n o w le dge p ro duce d b y p e ople , w ho , a cco rd in g to th e W orld C ouncil o f
In dig e no us P eople s, “ o ccu pie d la nds p rio r to p o pula tio ns w ho n o w s h are o r c la im s u ch te rrit o rie s”; in dig e no us
pe ople s m ay a ls o “ p o sse ss a d is tin ct la nguage a nd c u lt u re ” (S em ali & K in ch e lo e, 19 99, p . 4 0). D ei, H all, a nd
Rose nbe rg (2 0 00) p o in t o ut th at m any in dig e no us c u lt u re s v a lu e th e fo llo w in g: “ s e ein g th e in div id ual a s p art o f
natu re ; r e sp e ctin g a nd r e viv in g th e w is d o m o f e ld e rs ; g iv in g c o nsid e ra tio n to th e liv in g, th e d e ad, a nd fu tu re
ge ne ra tio ns; s h arin g r e sp o nsib ilit y , w ealt h , a nd r e so urc e s w it h in th e c o m munit y ; a nd e m bra cin g s p ir it u al v a lu e s,
tr a dit io ns a nd p ra ctic e s [w it h ] r e fle ctio n [o n] c o nne ctio ns to a h ig he r o rd e r, to th e c u lt u re , a nd to th e e arth ” (p .
6).
In dig e no us k n o w le dge d if fe rs fr o m o ffic ia l, a ca de m ic k n o w le dge in s e ve ra l w ays. F ir s t, it is o rg anic in th e s e nse
th at it is g e ne ra te d d urin g th e d aily liv e s o f p e ople in a lo ca l c o nte xt r a th e r th an “ b y p la nne d p ro ce dure s a nd
ru le s” (G eorg e , 19 99, p . 8 0 ). T his k n o w le dge is ty p ic a lly p asse d o n fr o m o ne g e ne ra tio n to th e n e xt in o ra l,
ra th e r th an w rit te n fo rm . F in ally , “ in dig e no us k n o w le dge is n o t to b e fo und in th e s ch o ol c u rric u lu m ” (p . 8 0 ). S o,
to o, th e “ p e dago gy” o f in dig e no us k n o w le dge d if fe rs fr o m tr a dit io nal s ch o olin g o r e duca tio n. K no w le dge is
co nve ye d th ro ugh “ s to ry te llin g, p o etr y , m eta pho r, m yth , c e re m ony, d re am s a nd a rt; a nd h o no rin g in dig e no us
eld e rs a s ‘c u lt u ra l p ro fe sso r’” (G ra ve lin e , 2 0 05, p . 3 0 8).
As m any w rit e rs h ave p o in te d o ut, w e h ave m uch to le arn fr o m in dig e no us k n o w le dge s yste m s th ro ugho ut th e
world . W hat h as u ntil r e ce ntly p re ve nte d u s fr o m a cce ssin g a nd le arn in g fr o m th e se s yste m s is
“W este rn ” k now le dge p ro ductio n— it is s e lf -c o nta in ed, s e lf -s u sta in in g, h andy, c o nve nie nt, a nd e ve n t in ged w it h a
se nse o f r ig hte ousn ess… . H erm etic a lly s e ale d, t h e c lo se d s yste m o f “ W este rn ” k now le dge p ro ductio n h as b een
in stit u tio naliz e d, in a m atte r o f s e ve ra l h undre d y e ars , t o s u ch a d egre e a s t o d is m is s in dig enous k now le dges b ase d
on t h ousa nds o f y e ars o f e xp erie nce , a naly sis , a nd r e fle ctio n a s p rim it iv e (A lle n, 1 9 89; D elo ria , 1 9 97; H arjo & B ir d ,
19 97). It is … in te lle ctu al a parth eid . [R ain s, 1 9 99, p . 3 17 ]
By w ay o f s u m mariz in g, it is o ur th in kin g th at n o n-W este rn p e rs p e ctiv e s o n le arn in g a nd k n o w in g in clu de , fo r
exa m ple , in dig e no us k n o w le dge s yste m s s u ch a s fo und in A fr ic a , in N ativ e A m eric a n a nd F ir s t N atio ns p e ople s
of N orth A m eric a , a nd in M ao ri p e ople o f N ew Z eala nd a nd A bo rig in al p e ople o f A ustr a lia . T yp ic a lly , h o w eve r,
majo r p hilo so phic a l o r r e lig io us s yste m s o f th o ught s u ch a s B uddhis m , Is la m , H in duis m , C onfu cia nis m , a nd s o
on a re la be le d “ n o n-W este rn ” r a th e r th an in dig e no us. O f c o urs e , h o w w e g ro up o r la be l th e se s yste m s is n o t
what is im po rta nt. W hat is im po rta nt is th at b y b e co m in g a cq uain te d w it h o th e r w ays o f le arn in g a nd k n o w in g w e
enric h o ur u nde rs ta ndin g o f le arn in g, a nd u lt im ate ly o ur p ra ctic e w it h a dult s .
AN IN TRO DUCTIO N T O F IV E N O N-W ES T ER N P ER SPEC TIV ES O N L E A RN IN G
Fo llo w in g is a s a m plin g o f fiv e n o n-W este rn p e rs p e ctiv e s o n le arn in g. T he re a re , o f c o urs e , b o ok-le ngth
de scrip tio ns o f e ach o f th e se , a nd th e re a re m any o th e r n o n-W este rn a nd in dig e no us e duca tio nal tr a dit io ns
th at c o uld b e e xp lo re d; h o w eve r, it is n o t th e in te ntio n o f th is c h apte r to b e c o m pre he nsiv e w it h r e gard to
th e se p e rs p e ctiv e s. R ath e r, w e w is h to in tr o duce r e ade rs to th e
possib ilit ie s
in le arn in g a bo ut o th e r w ays o f
kn o w in g. T he p e rs p e ctiv e s in clu de d h e re w ere p re se nte d b y th e ir a uth o rs in a s ym po siu m h e ld a t th e F o rty -
Six th A nnual A dult E duca tio n R ese arc h C onfe re nce a t th e U niv e rs it y o f G eorg ia , A th e ns, o n J u ne 4 , 2 0 05
(M erria m e t a l., 2 0 05).
AD ULT L E A RN IN G F R O M A C O NFU CIA N W AY O F T H IN KIN G: Y O UNGW HA K EE
AD ULT L E A RN IN G F R O M A C O NFU CIA N W AY O F T H IN KIN G: Y O UNGW HA K EE
The C onfu cia n n o tio ns a nd p e rs p e ctiv e s o n a dult le arn in g th at I p re se nt h e re a re b ase d o n fo ur b asic b o oks
abo ut C onfu cia nis m :
Confu cia n A nale cts
(S ung, 19 91a ),
Menciu s
(S ung, 19 91d ),
The G re at L e arn in g
(S ung, 19 91c ),
and
The D octr in e o f th e M ean
(S ung, 19 91b ). A lt h o ugh
The G re at L e arn in g
fo cu se s m ain ly o n th e C onfu cia n w ay
of le arn in g, th e o th e r th re e b o oks b ase d o n C onfu cia n p hilo so phy a nd id e as a ls o c o ntr ib ute to o ur
unde rs ta ndin g o f le arn in g a s p ro po se d b y C onfu ciu s (5 51-4 79 B C ), w ho is a ls o c a lle d K ungtz u .
h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?
u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /le arn in g_and_kn ow in g_non_w este rn _pers p ectiv e s/0 Acco rd in g to C hu H si, a tw elf th -c e ntu ry s ch o la r o f C onfu cia nis m , th e p hilo so phy b e hin d th is c o nce ptio n o f a dult
le arn in g is to im it a te th e v ir tu e s o f a no th e r p e rs o n. A cco rd in g to C hu H si, a p e rs o n w ho d o es n o t k n o w h o w to
act in a s it u atio n w ill fo llo w th e e xa m ple o f o ne w ho d o es k n o w . Im it a tio n o f th e c o nduct o f th e s a ge s is tr u e
le arn in g.
Confu ciu s a ls o e xp re sse d th e c o nce pt o f tr u e le arn in g w it h tw o c h ara cte rs
Hak
a nd
Seb
, w hic h c a n b e
tr a nsla te d in to th e o ne w ord
le arn in g
in E nglis h . K ungtz u ta ught th e p rin cip le o f le arn in g a s
Hak-Y i- S hi- S eub
,
whic h r e fe rs to th e e njo ym ent o f le arn in g th ro ugh d aily e xp e rie nce . S eub, e sp e cia lly , h as th e lit e ra ry m eanin g
of a b ir d th at is le arn in g to fly b y th e c o ntin uo us p ra ctic e o f fla ppin g it s w in gs in im it a tio n o f a n e xa m ple . H ak-Y i-
Shi- S eub e xp re sse s a c o nsta nt s ym bo lic r e la tio nsh ip w it h th e w orld a ro und u s to fe ed o ff o f— th at is , le arn fr o m
—th e m yria d s it u atio ns w e e nco unte r a s w e g o th ro ugh o ur liv e s.
Acco rd in g to
The G re at L e arn in g
, th e a dult le arn in g p ro ce ss is a h ig hly c o m ple x p ro ce ss, in vo lv in g c o m mit m ent,
co ntin uo us e ffo rt, a nd a h o lis tic a ppro ach . T his c o ntin uo us le arn in g p ro ce ss is c o nstr u cte d b y le arn e rs th ro ugh
th e in ne r s e lf in te ra ctin g w it h n atu re . It is a p ro je ct th at c a nno t b e c o m ple te d in a lim it e d tim e fr a m e. It
em phasiz e s m edit a tio n to c o ntr o l o ne se lf a nd in te rn al in te gra tio n b e tw een s e lf a nd n atu re . A nd it is e xte nde d
th ro ugh c o ntin uo us d ia lo gue s w it h o th e rs w it h in th e p ara m ete rs o f h um an r e la tio nsh ip s. It is a h o lis tic a ppro ach
to le arn in g: to b e co m e fu lly h um an th ro ugh s e lf -r e ctif ic a tio n a nd s p ir it u al s tu dy.
The p urp o se o f a dult le arn in g is to e nlig hte n th e p e ople , to lo ve th e p e ople , a nd to r e st in “ th e h ig he st
exce lle nce .” A cco rd in g to
The G re at L e arn in g
, e ig ht s te ps s h o uld b e fo llo w ed to r e ach th e h ig he st e xce lle nce :
in ve stig atio n o f th in gs, e xte nsio n o f k n o w le dge , s in ce rit y o f w ill, r e ctif ic a tio n o f th e m in d, c u lt iv a tio n o f o ne 's
pe rs o nal lif e , r e gula tio n o f th e fa m ily , n atio nal o rd e r, a nd w orld p e ace . A dult le arn in g is a g uid e to b e co m in g
fu lly h um an. A dult le arn in g, a cco rd in g to C onfu cia nis m , c a nno t b e u se d a s a to ol fo r a ch ie vin g s p e cif ic g o als in
a s p e cif ic s it u atio n. F o r e xa m ple , th e c o nte nts o f le arn in g a re n o t r e la te d to v o ca tio nal o r s kill a cq uir e m ent.
In ste ad, a dult le arn in g is fo cu se d o n s p ir it u al d e ve lo pm ent.
Acco rd in g to
The G re at L e arn in g
(S ung 19 91c ), a dult le arn in g h ig hlig hts b o th le arn in g o n o ne 's o w n a nd p e er
le arn in g.
Confu cia n A nale cts
(S ung, 19 91a , p . 13 9 ) m entio ns th at “ th e re m ust b e a r o le m ode l e ve n w he n a fe w
pe ople ta ke o ff o n th e r o ad to ge th e r.” It e m phasiz e s p e er le arn in g a m ong a dult le arn e rs . M ore ove r,
Confu cia n
Anale cts
s a ys th at te ach e rs m ust w ait u ntil a dult le arn e rs u nde rs ta nd b y th e m se lv e s; th e n, a t th is tim e, te ach e rs
must a gain h e lp le arn e rs ’ u nde rs ta nd th ro ugh in div id ual le arn in g.
Fin ally , th e r e la tio nsh ip b e tw een te ach e r a nd s tu de nts is n o t e qual a s it is in W este rn s o cie ty . T he te ach e r is
re sp e cte d b y m em be rs o f s o cie ty , a nd le arn e rs a re a ske d to o be y th e ir te ach e rs . T his c o m es fr o m th e
Confu cia n id e a e xp re sse d a s g un (k in g), s a (te ach e r), b u (p are nt), ilc h e (th e s a m e b o dy) in C hin e se c h ara cte rs .
This m eans: te ach e r, p are nt, a nd k in g a re tr e ate d e qually a nd h ave th e s a m e im po rta nce in o ne 's liv e s. T his
id e a is s till p re va le nt in C onfu cia n e duca tio nal s yste m s in K o re a, T aiw an, a nd C hin a.
TH E H IN DU P ER SPEC TIV E: S W ATH I N ATH T H AKER
TH E H IN DU P ER SPEC TIV E: S W ATH I N ATH T H AKER
Im agin e , fo r a m om ent, th at y o u a re in te rv ie w in g p e ople fo r a p o sit io n a nd y o ur n e xt c a ndid ate is In dia n. W hat
ch ara cte ris tic s c o m e to m in d? W hat ty p e s o f k n o w le dge d o y o u th in k th is p artic u la r in div id ual p o sse sse s? O fte n
whe n o ne th in ks o f a n in div id ual o f In dia n o rig in , o ne im agin e s a p e rs o n w it h a s tr o ng a ptit u de fo r m ath ,
scie nce , a nd te ch no lo gy. H ow eve r, w he n o ne v is it s In dia , it is n o t te ch no lo gy th at is r e adily a ppare nt b ut r a th e r
a s p ir it u al a tm osp he re th at e m anate s fr o m th e p e ople o f th is c o untr y . It is n o t s im ply r e lig io n b ut r a th e r a
ho lis tic v ie w o f lif e . T his v ie w o f lif e c o m bin e s b o th c o gnit io n a nd s p ir it u alit y to c re ate in div id uals w ho v ie w
le arn in g a nd th e d e ve lo pm ent o f k n o w le dge n o t m ere ly a s th e a cq uis it io n o f s kills a nd fa cts b ut r a th e r a s a
means to b e co m in g u nif ie d b e in gs. A s D r. M erria m h as n o te d, W este rn n o tio ns o f le arn in g h ave d o m in ate d,
and s till d o m in ate , th e fie ld o f a dult e duca tio n, w it h is su e s s u ch a s s o m atic le arn in g a nd s p ir it u alit y e m erg in g
only r e ce ntly . W hile m uch o f th e r e se arc h a nd th e ory s u gge sts th at th e m in d a nd b o dy a re s p lit , a n um be r o f
cu lt u re s a ro und th e w orld d o n o t b e lie ve in th is d ic h o to m y, a nd H in duis m is n o e xce ptio n.
h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?
u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /le arn in g_and_kn ow in g_non_w este rn _pers p ectiv e s/0 Hin duis m , w hic h is s a id to b e o ve r fo ur th o usa nd y e ars o ld , d e fin e s it s e lf a cco rd in g to th e V edas, th e m ost
ancie nt b o dy o f r e lig io us lit e ra tu re . A lt h o ugh m uch o f th is c o nte nt h as lo ng b e en u nkn o w n to m ost H in dus, it is
still r e gard e d a s a n a bso lu te a uth o rit y , r e ve alin g th e fu ndam enta l tr u th . W hile th e c o nne ctio n b e tw een m in d
and b o dy is e vid e nt in th e se s crip tu re s, th e V edas a ls o c h ro nic le th e r e la tio nsh ip b e tw een g uru , o r te ach e r,
and s tu de nt, w hic h is b e lie ve d to b e s a cre d a nd r e ve re d. T his c o nne ctio n b e tw een in str u cto r a nd p upil is
pre va le nt in e arly w rit in gs, s u ch a s th e M ahabhara t, a n e pic in it s e lf , w hic h c o nta in s a c o de o f lif e , a p hilo so phy
of s o cia l a nd e th ic a l r e la tio ns th at o ffe rs s p ir it u al s tr e ngth . T he fo llo w in g s to ry , c o nta in e d w it h in th is lit e ra tu re ,
hig hlig hts th e s a cre d r e la tio nsh ip o f g uru a nd s tu de nt:
Ekala vya w it n esse s t h e a rc h ery s k ill o f D ro na a nd w is h es h im t o b e h is g uru . H ow eve r, D ro na r e fu se s, f o r a n um ber
of r e aso ns, c h ie f a m ong t h em b eca use h e a lr e ady h as a p upil, A rju na, t o w hom h e h as p ro m is e d t h e t it le o f g re ate st
arc h er in t h e w orld . D is a ppoin te d, E kala vya t a kes it u pon h im se lf t o s e cre tly w atc h D ro na d urin g h is in stru ctio n.
Thro ugh h is a bso lu te d evo tio n t o t h e a rt a nd c e ase le ss p ra ctic e , E kala vya 's s k ills s u rp ass t h ose o f A rju na. A rju na's
dre am is s h atte re d a nd D ro na in quir e s h ow t h e y o uth h as le arn ed s u ch a n a rt. T hough it c a n b e a rg ued t h at it w as
Ekala vya 's d evo tio n a nd d ete rm in atio n t h at d eve lo ped h is s u cce ss, h e h onors D ro na b y k neelin g b efo re h im . D ro na
beco m es u pse t w hen h e r e aliz e s t h at E kala vya h as b een w atc h in g h im , a s h e h as a lo ya lt y t o A rju na. T hus, D ro na
ask s E kala vya f o r h is r ig ht t h um b a s p aym ent f o r t h is “ te ach in g,” w hic h h e im media te ly o ffe rs o ut o f g ra tit u de, e ve n
th ough h e k now s h e w ill n o lo nger b e a ble t o p ra ctic e a rc h ery .
This s to ry illu str a te s b o th s id e s o f th e c o nne ctio n b e tw een s tu de nt a nd m aste r. D ro na fe lt a s tr o ng b o nd to h is
dis cip le , A rju na, a nd h e lp in g h im fu lf ill h is d re am o f b e co m in g th e w orld 's g re ate st a rc h e r. T hus, h e a sks
Eka la vya fo r h is th um b, k n o w in g fu ll w ell th at th is w ill m ake it im po ssib le fo r th e y o uth to b e a n a rc h e r. In tu rn ,
Eka la vya fe els a d e ep r e ve re nce fo r D ro na b e ca use h e v ie w s h im a s h is m aste r a nd g uid e . It is b e ca use o f
th is r e sp e ct th at E ka la vya fr e ely o ffe rs h is th um b. W hile th is ta le d o es r e pre se nt th e n o tio n o f a ppre ntic e sh ip ,
be ca use b o th A rju na a nd E ka la vya w ere s e ekin g to m aste r a s p e cif ic s kill, it a ls o h ig hlig hts h o w , in H in du
philo so phy, th e g uru -s tu de nt r e la tio nsh ip e xte nds m uch fu rth e r th an th at. T ho ugh H in duis m d o es a llo w fo r
in div id uatio n, it s fo cu s is o n s p ir it u al g ro w th , th us h e lp in g in div id uals to c o nne ct th e m in d a nd b o dy.
The v a lu e s a nd b e lie fs o f H in duis m , s u ch a s k a rm a (th e la w o f c a use a nd e ffe ct), a re o fte n le arn e d n o t th ro ugh
re adin gs b ut th ro ugh o ra to ry . W hile r e lig io us s crip tu re s s u ch a s th e M ahabhara t, R am aya na, a nd th e B hagava d
Git a a re n o w in w rit te n fo rm , m uch o f th e ir c o nte nts a re ta ught th ro ugh s to ry te llin g. C hild re n g ro w u p h e arin g
ta le s, s u ch a s th e o ne to ld e arlie r, fr o m th e ir p are nts a nd g ra ndpare nts , th at h ig hlig ht th e p hilo so phic a l v a lu e s
of H in duis m . In th is c u lt u re , it e m s d o n o t n e ce ssa rily n e ed to b e w rit te n d o w n in o rd e r to c a rry s ig nif ic a nce .
In ste ad, th e c o re u nde rp in nin gs o f H in duis m a re p asse d fr o m g e ne ra tio n to g e ne ra tio n th ro ugh a n o ra l
tr a dit io n. T his is e sp e cia lly tr u e in r e la tio n to th e V edas, w hic h a re c o nsid e re d to b e th e h e art o f H in du c u lt u re .
Tho ugh m any c a n n o lo nge r r e ad th e se s crip tu re s (th e la nguage o f S anskrit is a d yin g a rt), th e ir m essa ge liv e s
on in th e s to rie s th at fa m ilie s s h are . It is th e r e co untin g o f th e se g e ne ra tio nal ta le s, a nd n o t th e w rit te n w ord ,
th at k e eps H in duis m a liv e . In a ddit io n, d ance a nd m usic a re u se d to s h are th e le sso ns th at a re c o nta in e d in th e
ancie nt te xts . T he u se o f th e se v a rio us a rt fo rm s a ls o h e lp s k e ep H in du tr a dit io ns a liv e .
Thro ugho ut lif e , H in dus s tr iv e to b e co m e le arn e d in m ult ip le w ays. It is n o t s im ply a bo ut d e ve lo pin g c o gnit iv e
skills , b ut r a th e r to d is co ve r o ne se lf , b e ca use th is is th e o nly m eans a nd p ath to lib e ra tio n a nd w is d o m .
How eve r, th is s e lf -d is co ve ry is n o t th e e nd o f th e s p ir it u al jo urn e y b ut r a th e r a s te ppin g-s to ne to g ain in g a
more h o lis tic u nde rs ta ndin g o f th e u niv e rs e . W he re as W este rn b e lie f te ach e s th at a n in div id ual is e m po w ere d
th ro ugh h im se lf o r h e rs e lf , H in duis m a rg ue s th at tr u e e m po w erm ent e m erg e s th ro ugh a n u nde rs ta ndin g o f th e
so urc e s o f k n o w le dge , n o t ju st it s c o m po ne nts , th us le adin g to u nit y w it h th e u niv e rs e , w hic h a t tim es r e quir e s
a r e no uncin g o f th e s e lf a nd w orld ly p o sse ssio ns. T his is p artic u la rly p o ig nant d urin g th e la st s ta ge o f lif e ,
whe n in div id uals a bando n th e ir h o m e a nd b e lo ngin gs a nd s e t fo rth o n a p ilg rim age o r s e ek s a nctu ary in a n
ash ra m , w hic h is a s p ir it u al h o ste l. T his ty p e o f jo urn e y s till ta ke s p la ce to day, b e ca use it is b e lie ve d th at th is
passa ge le ads to tr u e e nlig hte nm ent th ro ugh u nif ic a tio n o f th e m in d a nd b o dy. T hus, lif e fo r a H in du is n o t
h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?
u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /le arn in g_and_kn ow in g_non_w este rn _pers p ectiv e s/0 abo ut th e a cq uis it io n o f k n o w le dge b ut r a th e r a bo ut d e ve lo pin g w is d o m th ro ugh g ain in g a n u nde rs ta ndin g o f
one se lf in a h o lis tic m anne r.
This n o tio n o f fo re go in g id e ntit y in o rd e r to r e ach a s ta te o f h ig he r u nde rs ta ndin g is p o w erfu l, a nd o fte n
ne gle cte d in W este rn th o ught. T he re is a s tr o ng e m phasis o n in div id uatio n in th e W est th at is n o t r e adily
appare nt in H in duis m . T he H in du le arn e r c o ntin ually s tr iv e s to u nde rs ta nd th e la rg e r p ic tu re a nd h is o r h e r
co nne ctio n to th e u niv e rs e a s a w ho le . It c a n b e a rg ue d th at th is m enta lit y a llo w s le arn e rs to o pe n th e m se lv e s
to v a ry in g s o urc e s o f k n o w le dge . B y a llo w in g a v a rie ty o f fo rm s o f k n o w le dge , s u ch a s th ro ugh m edit a tio n a nd
sto rie s, a nd n o t r e ly in g s o le ly o n th e p rin te d w ord , H in du le arn e rs a re a ble to o bta in a le ve l o f s p ir it u al b e in g
th at is o fte n d if fic u lt fo r W este rn s tu de nts . A s th e W este rn e duca tio nal s yste m b e gin s to v a lu e o th e r w ays o f
kn o w in g, it s le arn e rs w ill h ave a n o ppo rtu nit y to fo cu s le ss o n th e s e lf a nd in cre asin gly o n fo rm in g a u nit y w it h
th e w orld a t la rg e .
MAO RI C O NCEPTS O F L E A RN IN G A N D K N O W LE D GE: B RIA N F IN DSEN
MAO RI C O NCEPTS O F L E A RN IN G A N D K N O W LE D GE: B RIA N F IN DSEN
He a ha te m ea n ui o te a o? H e ta ngata , h e ta ngata , h e ta ngata . (W hat is th e m ost im porta nt th in g in lif e ? It 's
people , it 's p eople , it 's p eople .)
This p ro ve rb fr o m M ao ri tr a dit io ns s tr e sse s th e c e ntr a lit y o f p e ople to a ny a ctiv it y o f liv in g. L e arn in g is n o
exce ptio n. M ao ri le arn in g h as a lw ays b e en lif e lo ng a nd lif e w id e , lo ng b e fo re th e se c o nce pts b e ca m e
fa sh io nable in a dult e duca tio n c ir c le s a nd b e yo nd.
Ako
, th e M ao ri w ord fo r le arn in g, n e ce ssa rily e nta ils
his to ric a l a nd c u lt u ra l d im ensio ns a nd is a ls o th e w ord fo r te ach in g. B efo re F re ir e (19 70 ) e xp la in e d th e
co nce pts o f te ach e r-s tu de nt a nd s tu de nt-te ach e r, th e te rm
ako
d id n o t d if fe re ntia te b e tw een th o se w ho
dis p e nse k n o w le dge a nd th o se w ho a cq uir e it . K no w le dge is a lw ays a c o lle ctiv e e ntit y .
In th is s it u atio n I n e ed to s ta te m y p o sit io nalit y in r e la tio n to th e c o nstr u ctio n o f M ao ri k n o w le dge . A s a N ew
Zeala nde r a nd s tu de nt o f
Maorit a nga
(th in gs M ao ri) , I o ffe r a n “ in sid e r” p e rs p e ctiv e ; a s a
Pake ha
(E uro pe an), I
offe r a n “ o uts id e r” v ie w po in t, u navo id ably E uro ce ntr ic to a d e gre e. I c a n n e ve r b e b ic u lt u ra l in th e s a m e w ay
as a M ao ri p e rs o n w ho is im mers e d in th e d o m in ant c u lt u re a nd s u bje ct to it s o ppre ssiv e p o w er r e la tio ns; I
ch o ose a s a m em be r o f th e d o m in ant c o lo niz in g g ro up to b e tte r u nde rs ta nd M ao ri c o nce pts a nd p e rs p e ctiv e s.
The T re aty o f W ait a ngi p ro vid e s m uch o f th e p o lic y c o nte xt fo r M ao ri s e lf -d e te rm in atio n a nd w hat c o unts a s
kn o w le dge in o ffic ia lly b ic u lt u ra l
Aote aro a
(th e M ao ri w ord fo r N ew Z eala nd) to day. In th is c o nte m po ra ry
so cie ty , th e tr e aty , s ig ne d in 18 4 0 b y 5 12 c h ie fs o f th e M ao ri p e ople a nd G ove rn o r H obso n, o n b e half o f th e
Brit is h C ro w n, fu nctio ns a s a b lu e prin t fo r r e la tio ns b e tw een
ta ngata w henua
(p e ople o f th e la nd) a nd
ta uiw i
(n o n-M ao ri) , in clu din g r e la tio nsh ip s in th e e duca tio nal r e alm . Im po rta ntly , th re e p rin cip le s d e riv e d fr o m th e
tr e aty a re p ro m in e nt in c u rre nt g o ve rn m ent s o cia l p o lic y: p ro te ctio n (o f
ta onga
, o r c h e ris h e d p o sse ssio ns,
su ch a s la nguage ), p artn e rs h ip (m ovin g fo rw ard o n a n e qual p o w er b asis ), a nd p artic ip atio n (th e r ig hts o f M ao ri
to a ctiv e c it iz e nry , in clu din g e qualit y o f e duca tio nal o ppo rtu nit y a nd o utc o m es).
Whe n d is cu ssin g M ao ri c o nce pts , tr a dit io nal tr ib al s tr u ctu re s n e ed to b e a naly ze d to p ro vid e th e b asis fo r th e
so cia l c o nstr u ctio n o f k n o w le dge . M ao ri tr a ce th e ir
whaka papa
(g e ne alo gy) b ack to th e G re at M ig ra tio n o f th e
se ve n
waka
(c a no es). E ach w aka c la im ed g e ogra phic a lly d if fe re nt p arts o f A ote aro a fo r
iw i
(tr ib e s). W it h in e ach
iw i a re
hapu
(s u btr ib e s) a nd w it h in e ach h apu a re
whanau
(e xte nde d fa m ilie s). H ence , th e w hanau s e rv e s a s a
fu ndam enta l u nit fo r liv in g a nd le arn in g. A lt h o ugh iw i w ere o rig in ally c o nce ntr a te d in p artic u la r g e ogra phic a l
are as, th e r e alit y n o w , a fte r m assiv e u rb aniz a tio n, is th at M ao ri p e ople a re s ca tte re d th ro ugh th e c o untr y
th o ugh u su ally s till a nch o re d to th e ir tr ib al id e ntit y . K no w le dge is a
ta onga
, u ne ve nly d is tr ib ute d, th o ugh h ig hly
va lu e d; s o m e o f it is
ta pu
(s a cre d) a nd c o ntr o lle d tr a dit io nally b y
to hunga
(e xp e rts ). W hile th e re is m uch in
co m mon a m ong iw i, th e re a re a ls o s ig nif ic a nt d if fe re nce s, r e la te d to
mara e
(c o m munit y s it e s fo r h apu o r iw i)
pro to co l. M uch k n o w le dge is c o nstr u cte d a nd r e in fo rc e d v ia
hui
(m eetin gs) h e ld o n m ara e w he re lo ca l c u sto m s
are e m phasiz e d a nd w hanau s o cia liz a tio n o ccu rs . H ow eve r, e sp e cia lly in u rb an s e ttin gs, s o m e o f th e
tr a dit io nal a sp e cts o f le arn in g h ave b e en d im in is h e d a nd n e w s o cia l p ra ctic e s e sta blis h e d.
h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?
u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /le arn in g_and_kn ow in g_non_w este rn _pers p ectiv e s/0 One o f th e p ro m in e nt fe atu re s o f N ew Z eala nd lif e is th e in cre asin g a uto no m y c la im ed b y M ao ri in a cco rd w it h
tin o r a ngatir a ta nga
(s e lf -d e te rm in atio n). T his b id b y M ao ri fo r g re ate r c o ntr o l o ve r th e ir liv e s is m ir ro re d in
oth e r p arts o f th e w orld w he re in dig e no us p e ople s a re m akin g s e rio us e ffo rts to r e cla im p o lit ic a l, e co no m ic ,
and e duca tio nal s o ve re ig nty . A s M ao ri h ave b e en d is e nfr a nch is e d fr o m m uch o f g o ve rn m ent-fu nde d e duca tio n
(a s e vid e nce d b y h is to ric a l n atio nal s ta tis tic s o f u nde ra ch ie ve m ent), th e ir s o lu tio n h as b e en to r e build M ao ri
co lle ctiv e c o nscio usn e ss b y e sta blis h in g th e ir o w n s it e s o f le arn in g, w he re c o ntr o l is in th e ir o w n h ands.
Kno w le dge is d e fin e d a nd c o nstr u cte d b y M ao ri fo r M ao ri a nd le arn e d in c u lt u ra lly a ppro pria te w ays.
Kohanga
re o
(la nguage n e sts ) b e gan in 19 81; h e re , p re sch o ole rs a re ta ught a cco rd in g to M ao ri c u sto m s in
te r e o
(M ao ri
la nguage ). C urre ntly , o ve r s ix h undre d k o hanga r e o e xis t. F o llo w in g th is in it ia tiv e a re s ix ty
ku ra k a upapa M aori
(M ao ri e le m enta ry -s e co ndary s ch o ols ) a nd n e w
whare w ananga
(h o use s o f le arn in g fo r a dult s ). H ence , a
lif e lo ng e duca tio n s yste m , c o nsis tin g o f M ao ri e duca tio n in stit u tio ns, h as b e en e sta blis h e d b y M ao ri, a ssis te d
to a m ode st e xte nt b y th e p ublic p urs e . T he s tr u ggle h as b e en h ard b ut th e r e w ard s g re at.
In M ao ri e duca tio n in stit u tio ns, c o nsis te nt w it h o ve ra rc h in g p rin cip le s d e riv e d fr o m th e tr e aty , th e re a re s ix
su bprin cip le s a do pte d b y p ro m in e nt M ao ri e duca to rs (s e e B is h o p & G ly n n, 2 0 03). T he y a re a s fo llo w s:
1 .
Tin o r a ngatir a ta nga
(r e la tiv e a uto no m y). O rg aniz e rs o f th e s ch o ols m ake a ll th e r e quir e d a dm in is tr a tiv e ,
sta ffin g, a nd p e dago gic a l d e cis io ns.
2 .
Taonga tu ku ih o
(c u lt u ra l a sp ir a tio ns). T o b e M ao ri is to b e n o rm al. M ao ri la nguage a nd k n o w le dge a re
va lu e d a nd le git im ate d.
3 .
Ako
(r e cip ro ca l le arn in g). T each in g a nd le arn in g a re c o nne cte d to th e r e al liv e s o f M ao ri, c o gniz a nt o f
th e ir lif e c ir c u m sta nce s.
4 .
Kia p ik i a ke I n ga r a ru ra ru o te k a in ga
(m edia tio n o f d if fic u lt ie s). P artic ip atio n in k u ra r e ach e s in to th e
ho m es o f M ao ri, a nd fa m ilie s a re e xp e cte d to p artic ip ate in k u ra a ctiv it ie s.
5 .
Whanau
(e xte nde d fa m ilie s). C olle ctiv e s o f p e ople w ork to w ard a c o m mon g o al.
6 .
Kaupapa
(c o lle ctiv e v is io n o r p hilo so phy). T he re is a c o lle ctiv e v is io n o f w hat c o nstit u te s e xce lle nce in
Mao ri e duca tio n.
The fu ndam enta l e sse nce o f th e k u ra k a upapa M ao ri is to a ssis t M ao ri fa m ilie s to p ro ble m -s o lv e in a c u lt u ra lly
su it a ble fa sh io n a nd to w ork a lo ngsid e c h ild re n in e duca tio n a nd e nhance th e ir o w n lif e lo ng le arn in g
asp ir a tio ns.
AD ULT L E A RN IN G F R O M A N IS LA M IC P ER SPEC TIV E: M AZA N AH M UHAM AD A N D M AZA LA N K A M IS
AD ULT L E A RN IN G F R O M A N IS LA M IC P ER SPEC TIV E: M AZA N AH M UHAM AD A N D M AZA LA N K A M IS
The w ord
Is la m
o rig in ate s fr o m th re e A ra bic le tte rs (S im , L a m , M im ), m akin g th e r o ot w ord w hic h m eans to b e in
pe ace fu l s u bm is sio n, to o be y, to s u rre nde r, a nd p e ace . In th e r e lig io us c o nte xt it m eans “ to ta l s u bm is sio n to
th e w ill o f A lla h a nd o be die nce to H is la w .” M uslim s d ra w u po n th e Q ur'a n a s a p rim ary le arn in g s o urc e a nd
su pple m ent it w it h th e
hadit h
, a c o lle ctio n o f th e r e co rd e d s a yin gs o f P ro phe t M uham mad.
Is la m is a c o m pre he nsiv e w ay o f lif e a nd it p ays s p e cia l a tte ntio n to e duca tio n a nd k n o w le dge s e ekin g. In
so m e a sp e cts , th e Is la m ic p e rs p e ctiv e o n le arn in g d if fe rs fr o m th at o f th e W est. D if fe re nce s in clu de th e
purp o se o f k n o w le dge , c o m munal o blig atio n, r e sp o nsib ilit y to s h are k n o w le dge , a nd th e te ach e r-s tu de nt
re la tio nsh ip .
Le arn in g is c o nsid e re d s a cre d a nd o blig ato ry fo r a n in div id ual a s w ell a s fo r th e c o m munit y . It is a fo rm o f
jih ad
,
whic h m eans
str u ggle .
In th e v e ry fir s t v e rs e o f th e Q ur'a n, th e P ro phe t w as in str u cte d to r e ad: “ R ead! In th e
nam e o f y o ur L o rd , W ho h as c re ate d (a ll th at e xis ts ). R ead! A nd y o ur L o rd is th e m ost g e ne ro us. W ho h as
ta ught (th e w rit in g) b y th e p e n. H as ta ught m an th at w hic h h e k n e w n o t” (Q ur'a n 9 6:1 -5 ).
h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?
u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /le arn in g_and_kn ow in g_non_w este rn _pers p ectiv e s/0 In Is la m , th e p urp o se o f e duca tio n is to b rin g h um ankin d c lo se r to G od a nd H is c re atio n. S in ce G od is “ th e
so urc e o f k n o w le dge , b y k n o w in g m ore th e y fe lt th e y w ere d ra w in g n e ar to G od” (H usa in & A sh ra f, 19 79 , p . 11).
The Q ur'a n a ls o g uid e s h um ans to in ve stig ate th e p he no m ena o f n atu re , s o th at th e y w ill r e co gniz e , w ors h ip ,
and s e rv e A lla h. T he Is la m ic n o tio n o f e duca tio n in te gra te s th e r a tio nal, s p ir it u al, a nd s o cia l d im ensio ns o f a
pe rs o n (C ook, 19 99). T his n o tio n is g ro unde d in s in ce rit y , w he re k n o w le dge g ain e d is m eant to g uid e p ra ctic e
and e sp o use h um ilit y . T he P ro phe t s a id : “ A ctio ns a re b ut b y in te ntio n a nd e ve ry m an s h all h ave o nly w hic h h e
in te nde d.”
The e m phasis o n a c o m munal le arn in g o blig atio n is u niq ue b e ca use it s tr e sse s th e b e lie ve rs ’ r e sp o nsib ilit y to
so cie ty . E duca tio n a nd th e a cq uis it io n o f k n o w le dge a re g o od o nly if “ th e y s e rv e to e nge nde r v ir tu e in th e
in div id ual a nd e le va te th e w ho le c o m munit y ” (C ook, 19 99, p . 3 4 9). L e arn e rs a nd s o cie ty b e ne fit fr o m
kn o w le dge a cq uis it io n, “ A re th o se w ho k n o w e qual to th o se w ho d o n o t k n o w ?” (Q ur'a n, 3 9 :9 ).
Is la m r e co gniz e s th at b o th le arn in g a nd te ach in g a re e qually im po rta nt. In h is la st s e rm on th e P ro phe t s a id ,
“L e t th o se w ho a re p re se nt in fo rm th o se w ho a re n o t.” In a no th e r h adit h th e P ro phe t c a lls fo r a p e rs o n to “ b e
a s ch o la r/te ach e r, … o r b e a s tu de nt w ho s tu die s, o r b e a lis te ne r w ho lis te ns to p e ople w ho te ach . D o n o t fa ll
in to th e fo urth c a te go ry : h ate r o f th e a bo ve .”
A te ach e r is a le arn e d p e rs o n w ho is a k e epe r o f G od's tr e asu re — th at is , k n o w le dge . A te ach e r is lik e th e s u n,
whic h b e in g it s e lf lu m in o us, s h e ds lig ht: “ T he p assin g a w ay o f a w ho le tr ib e is m ore to le ra ble th an th e d e ath o f
one le arn e d m an” (F a ris & A sh ra f, 2 0 03). T he s tu de nt-te ach e r r e la tio nsh ip is , th e re fo re , s a cre d. T hus,
adab
(d is cip lin e o f b o dy, m in d, a nd s p ir it ) m ust b e o bse rv e d w he n o ne in te ra cts w it h o ne 's te ach e r.
Fin ally , le arn in g is lif e lo ng. T he P ro phe t s a id , “ S eek k n o w le dge fr o m th e c ra dle to th e g ra ve .” T he P ro phe t w as
fo rty y e ars o ld a nd illit e ra te w he n th e Q ur'a n w as fir s t r e ve ale d to h im . A w ell- k n o w n Is la m ic s ch o la r, A l- Im am
Shaffie , d e scrib e d a p e rs o n w ho c e ase s to le arn a s d e ad. L ik e a d ro p o f w ate r in th e s e a, o ne c a n n e ve r
co m ple te a cq uir in g k n o w le dge , a n o tio n s u ppo rte d b y th e Q ur'a n (18 :1 0 9). It is c le ar th at a ge , g e nde r, o r
eth nic it y s h o uld n o t b e a b arrie r o r a p re re quis it e fo r le arn in g. S eekin g, r e fle ctin g, a nd s h arin g k n o w le dge is
no ble st o f a ll in Is la m .
AFR IC AN IN DIG EN O US E D UCATIO N: G ABO N TSEA N E
AFR IC AN IN DIG EN O US E D UCATIO N: G ABO N TSEA N E
Rese arc h o n A fr ic a n tr a dit io nal e duca tio n (M oro lo ng, 19 96; M autle , 2 0 01; M agagula & M azib o ku , 2 0 04) r e ve als
th at e duca tio n a nd le arn in g a re n o t r e ce nt in te rv e ntio ns in tr a dit io nal s o cie tie s. T he y h ad s p e cif ic p rin cip le s,
meth o ds, a nd s o cia l in stit u tio ns to fo ste r le arn in g. T he lit e ra tu re a ls o s h o w s th at a m ajo r p rin cip le o f A fr ic a n
in dig e no us k n o w le dge s yste m s is th at to le arn is to liv e u se fu lly a nd h appily w it h o ne 's fa m ily , w it h o ne 's
co m munit y , o ne 's s o cie ty , a nd th e s p ir it s o f o ne 's a nce sto rs — he nce , th e im po rta nce o f th e w ord s
both o
in
Sets w ana o r
ubuntu
in Z ulu , w ho se lit e ra l tr a nsla tio n is “ h um anis m o f h um an b e in gs c o lle ctiv e ly .”
In fo rm alit y , c o lle ctiv e le arn in g, o ra l m ode s o f in str u ctio n, a nd a cq uis it io n o f r e ve ale d k n o w le dge th ro ugh
dre am s a nd v is io ns a re a ls o im po rta nt. U nfo rtu nate ly , c u rre nt a dult e duca tio n p ra ctic e s h ave o ve rlo oke d s o m e
of th e se im po rta nt p rin cip le s o f A fr ic a n p e dago gy. It is a rg ue d th at a c re ativ e a dult e duca tio n p ra ctic e th at
mode rn iz e s tr a dit io n b ut a t th e s a m e tim e tr a dit io naliz e s m ode rn it y is r e quir e d.
In th e A fr ic a n c o nte xt, e duca tio n is s u ppo se d to h e lp g ro ups o f p e ople r e ach th e h ig he st le ve l o f im po rta nt
so cie ta l v a lu e s, s u ch a s
both o
, o r h um anis m . B y b e in g b o th o th e in div id ual th e n b e co m es p art o f a n
em po w ere d g ro up o f p e ople w ho a re h o ne st, a cco m modatin g, s h arin g, c o m mit te d to s a vin g liv e s a t a ll c o sts ,
and r e sp e ctin g o f th e y o ung a nd th e o ld . T he o ppo sit e o f b o th o is s e lf is h ne ss, g re edin e ss, a nd s e lf -
ce nte re dne ss— ch ara cte ris tic s n o t g o od fo r h um anis m b e ca use th e y d o n o t p ro m ote c o ope ra tio n b e tw een
in div id uals , c u lt u re s, a nd n atio ns.
How eve r, th e v a lu e s o f
ubuntu
h ave b e en m arg in aliz e d in e duca tio n b e ca use o f th e h is to ric a l p ro ce ss o f
co lo nia lis m a nd a m ate ria lis tic e co no m y. T he r e su lt is a n e duca tio n la ckin g in th e a bilit y to r e sp o nd to th e
h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?
u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /le arn in g_and_kn ow in g_non_w este rn _pers p ectiv e s/0 ne eds a nd in te re sts o f in dig e no us c o m munit ie s. A dult e duca tio n h as b e en a ccu se d o f e le va tin g te ch nic a l
ra tio nalit y o ve r o th e r fo rm s o f k n o w le dge , h um an th o ught, a nd d is co urs e .
Lo ca lly b ase d k n o w le dge is g e ne ra te d th ro ugh a s yste m atic p ro ce ss o f o bse rv in g th e lo ca l e nvir o nm ent,
exp e rim entin g w it h s o lu tio ns, a nd r e ado ptin g p re vio usly id e ntif ie d s o lu tio ns to c h angin g e nvir o nm enta l fa cto rs .
It is a cq uir e d a nd s h are d th ro ugh e m pir ic a lly b ase d o bse rv a tio n, im it a tio n, a nd c o ntin uo us p ra ctic e th ro ugh a
phase d c h ild ho od a nd a do le sce nce . It e nco ura ge s
partic ip ato ry e duca tio n
th ro ugh c e re m onie s a nd r it u als ,
sp ir it u al w ork , r e cre atio n w ork , a nd in te lle ctu al tr a in in g s u ch a s s to ry te llin g a nd p o etr y . K no w le dge is s to re d in
cu lt u ra l a nd r e lig io us b e lie fs , ta bo os, fo lk lo re , o r m yth s a nd a n in div id ual's p ra ctic a l e xp e rie nce . T he la ck o f
hie ra rc h y a nd th e ore tic a l c o nce pts a llo w e asy s h arin g o f k n o w le dge .
In o ra l s o cie tie s s u ch a s in A fr ic a , e ve ry n o rm al p e rs o n, b e sid e s b e in g r e quir e d to b e a p ro ductiv e w ork e r,
als o p la ys th e d o uble r o le o f le arn e r a nd te ach e r. A u niq ue fo rm o f fo rm al in str u ctio n is th e a cq uis it io n o f
re ve ale d k n o w le dge th ro ugh th e p ro ce sse s o f d re am s a nd v is io ns. F o r e xa m ple , m any h e rb alis ts in B ots w ana
cla im th at th e s e cre ts o f th e ir m edic in e a nd h o w it s h o uld b e a dm in is te re d w ere c o m munic a te d to th e m m ain ly
th ro ugh d re am s.
In th e a bse nce o f lit e ra cy, M autle (2 0 01) o bse rv e d th at a sse ssm ent in B ots w ana in clu de d p e rfo rm in g g ro up
ta sks a nd ju dgin g a n in div id ual's c h ara cte r in r e la tio n to th e o ve ra ll g ro up's p e rfo rm ance . R eal g ra duatio n
occu rre d o nly a fte r a g ro up h ad s u cce ssfu lly in it ia te d th e c o ho rt th at fo llo w ed it . A ccre dit a tio n w as n o t in th e
fo rm o f a c e rtif ic a te to a n in div id ual b ut r a th e r th e g ra duate s w ere g iv e n a n am e fo r th e ir c o ho rt a nd a ssig ne d
a c o m munit y -b ase d a ctiv it y . T he a ctiv it y h ad to b e r e le va nt to th e c u rre nt n e eds o f th e s o cie ty , s u ch a s b uild in g
a c o rra l fo r s tr a y c a ttle .
Alt h o ugh I a dvo ca te fo r th e r e co gnit io n o f A fr ic a n in dig e no us k n o w le dge , I b y n o m eans a dvo ca te fo r a
co m ple te u pro otin g o f th e o th e r c u lt u ra l a sp e cts o f th e c u rre nt a dult e duca tio n c u rric u lu m . O nly g o od a sp e cts
of A fr ic a n in dig e no us k n o w le dge s yste m s s h o uld b e a dapte d.
CO M MON T H EM ES A CRO SS N O N-W ES T ER N A ND IN D IG EN O US P ER SPEC TIV ES
Fro m th is s m all s a m plin g o f n o n-W este rn a nd in dig e no us p e rs p e ctiv e s w e c a n s e e a n um be r o f th e m es a bo ut
le arn in g th at s ta nd in c o ntr a st w it h W este rn v ie w s. T he fo ur th e m es o f in te rd e pe nde nt, c o m munal, h o lis tic , a nd
in fo rm al le arn in g h ig hlig ht d if fe re nt
em phase s
in le arn in g, r a th e r th an s u gge stin g a n e it h e r/o r s ta nce .
Fir s t, th e re is a n e m phasis o n
in te rd ependence
in ste ad o f in de pe nde nce in le arn in g. W este rn m ode ls o f
de ve lo pm ent a nd le arn in g p ro m ote a m ove m ent to w ard b e in g m ore in de pe nde nt; to b e in c o ntr o l o f o ne 's lif e
and le arn in g, to b e a p ro ductiv e m em be r o f s o cie ty , is , in fa ct, w hat it m eans to b e “ m atu re ” in o ur s o cie ty (s e e
Chapte r T w elv e ). A ndra go gy, s e lf -d ir e cte d le arn in g, a nd M ezir o w 's th e ory o f tr a nsfo rm atio nal le arn in g a ll fo cu s
on th e in div id ual b e co m in g a n in de pe nde nt le arn e r w ho r e lie s m ostly o n h im se lf o r h e rs e lf in th e p ro ce ss.
This n o tio n is in s ta rk c o ntr a st to n o n-W este rn le arn in g tr a dit io ns a s is o bvio us in a ll fiv e o f th e p re ce din g
vig ne tte s. Id e ntit y , s e lf -c o nce pt, a nd s e lf -e ste em a re d e ve lo pe d a nd e nhance d o nly in r e la tio n to o th e rs .
Reca ll N ah's (2 0 00) r e se arc h in to s e lf -d ir e cte d le arn in g in K o re a m entio ne d e arlie r in th is c h apte r w he re in
in de pe nde nce is c o nsid e re d im matu re a nd s e lf -c e nte re d. C om mentin g o n th e A fr ic a n c o nte xt, F a so ku n,
Kata ho ir e , a nd O duara n (2 0 05, p . 10 ) n o te th at w hile o f c o urs e “ n o o ne is e xclu siv e ly in de pe nde nt o r
in te rd e pe nde nt” a nd s o m e b ala nce “ is s tr u ck b y e ach s o cie ty , in m ost A fr ic a n c u lt u re s th e in div id ual g ain s
sig nif ic a nce fr o m a nd th ro ugh r e la tio nsh ip s w it h o th e rs .”
Seco nd, th e n o tio n o f in te rd e pe nde nce is lin ke d to th e
co m munal
n atu re o f le arn in g in n o n-W este rn s yste m s,
ra th e r th an th e m ore is o la te d W este rn te ach in g-le arn in g tr a nsa ctio n. It is th e r e sp o nsib ilit y o f a ll in th e
co m munit y to te ach a nd to le arn . In c o m mentin g o n s e ve n tr a dit io ns (A fr ic a n in dig e no us, A zte c, N ativ e
Am eric a n, C onfu cia n, H in du a nd B uddhis t, R om , a nd Is la m ic ) p re se nte d in h is b o ok, R eagan (2 0 05) o bse rv e s:
h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?
u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /le arn in g_and_kn ow in g_non_w este rn _pers p ectiv e s/0 The c o nce pt o f s o m e a dult s b ein g
te ach ers
a nd o th ers (p re su m ably ) b ein g
non-te ach ers
is a s o m ew hat a lie n o ne t o
many t ra dit io ns. F urth erm ore , it is in te re stin g t o n ote t h at in n one o f t h e c a se s e xa m in ed h ere — eve n t h ose w it h t h e
most f u lly a rtic u la te d f o rm al e duca tio nal s yste m s— was t h ere a ny e xp lic it , f o rm al t ra in in g f o r t h ose w ho w ould p la y
te ach in g r o le s. T he id ea o f t e ach ers e ngagin g in a p ro fe ssio n, w it h s p ecia liz e d k now le dge a nd e xp ertis e n ot h eld b y
oth ers , a ppears t o b e a W este rn , a nd in deed r e la tiv e ly r e ce nt, in nova tio n. [p . 2 49 ; it a lic s in o rig in al]
Thir d , a
holis tic
a ppro ach th at in clu de s th e s p ir it , m in d, b o dy, a nd e m otio nal c o m po ne nts o f le arn in g, o r s o m e
co m bin atio n o f th e se , is e m phasiz e d o ve r th e W este rn fo cu s o n th e c o gnit iv e . In n o n-W este rn tr a dit io ns,
educa tio n a nd le arn in g a re in th e s e rv ic e o f d e ve lo pin g m ore th an ju st th e m in d. T he y a re a ls o to d e ve lo p a
go od p e rs o n, a m ora l p e rs o n, a s p ir it u al p e rs o n, o ne w ho n o t o nly c o ntr ib ute s to b ut a ls o u plif ts th e
co m munit y . B enally (19 97) s p e aks o f le arn in g in th e N ava jo tr a dit io n: “ W este rn tr a dit io n s e para te s s e cu la r a nd
sa cre d k n o w le dge a nd th us fr a gm ents k n o w le dge . C onse que ntly , s o m e le arn in g is fo rg o tte n s o on a fte r
aca de m ic p ro gra m r e quir e m ents a re m et b e ca use it w as n e ve r g ro unde d o r c o nne cte d to lif e p ro ce sse s” (p .
84 ). In c o ntr a st, “ fo r th e N ava jo , k n o w le dge , le arn in g, a nd lif e it s e lf a re
sa cre d, in se para ble , a nd in te rw ove n
parts o f a w hole .
T he q ualit y o f e ach d e te rm in e s th e q ualit y o f th e o th e r” (p . 8 4 ; it a lic s in o rig in al) . B eca use
de ve lo pm ent o f th e w ho le p e rs o n is im pe ra tiv e , in str u ctio n c a n ta ke m any fo rm s to a cce ss th e se d if fe re nt
dim ensio ns, s u ch a s s to ry te llin g, p o etr y , c e re m onie s, d re am s, m edit a tio n, a nd s o o n.
A fo urth th e m e th at c u ts a cro ss n o n-W este rn p e rs p e ctiv e s is th at le arn in g is p rim arily
in fo rm al
, is e m be dde d in
eve ry d ay lif e , a nd is lif e lo ng. W hile w e in a dult e duca tio n m ig ht r e co gniz e th e p re va le nce a nd p o w er o f
le arn in g th at is in te gra l to o ur d aily liv e s, m ost W este rn e rs th in k o f le arn in g a s th at w hic h o ccu rs in a fo rm al
te ach e r-le d c la ssro om d e pe nde nt o n b o oks a nd c u rric u lu m m ate ria ls . F o rm al a sse ssm ent th at o fte n le ads to
so m e s o rt o f c e rtif ic a tio n o r c re dit is p art o f th is s tr u ctu re .
In c o ntr a st, le arn in g in n o n-W este rn s e ttin gs is s tr u ctu re d b y th e c o m munit y p ro ble m o r is su e n e edin g
atte ntio n, b y a cce ssin g r e so urc e s, in clu din g p e ople a nd m ate ria ls th at c a n a ssis t in th e p ro ble m s o lv in g, a nd b y
“e va lu atin g” th e le arn in g a cco rd in g to th e e ffe ctiv e ne ss o f it s a pplic a tio n to th e s it u atio n. T his is n o t to s a y th at
fo rm al e duca tio n h as n o p la ce in n o n-W este rn s yste m s; in to day's w orld fo rm al e duca tio n h as b e co m e a
ne ce ssit y . R ath e r, “ th e c o m mon te nde ncy in o ur o w n s o cie ty to c o nfla te a nd c o nfu se ‘f o rm al s ch o olin g’ w it h
‘e duca tio n’— a te nde ncy r e fle cte d in o ur c o nce rn w it h fo rm al c e rtif ic a tio n a nd d e gre es r a th e r th an w it h
co m pe te nce p e r s e — has b e en fa r le ss c o m mon in n o n-W este rn tr a dit io ns” (R eagan, 2 0 05, p . 2 4 8). T he re
appe ars to b e m ore r e co gnit io n o f a nd v a lu e p la ce d o n le arn in g th at is w hat w e w ould c a ll in fo rm al in th e se
no n-W este rn tr a dit io ns. In r e fe re nce to A fr ic a , F a so ku n, K ata ho ir e , a nd O duara n (2 0 05) s u m u p th is e m phasis
on in fo rm al le arn in g: “ A s in o th e r p arts o f th e w orld , in fo rm al le arn in g b y A fr ic a n a dult s in vo lv e s le arn in g
th ro ugh e xp e rie nce u nde r e nablin g c o ndit io ns th at fa cilit a te th e d e ve lo pm ent o f k n o w le dge , s kills , a ttit u de s,
aptit u de s, v a lu e s a nd in te re sts . T his is d o ne to e nhance p e rfo rm ance , b rin g a bo ut c h ange o r s o lv e p ra ctic a l
pro ble m s” (p . 3 6 ).
In s u m mary , w e h ave p re se nte d fo ur th e m es o r e m phase s in n o n-W este rn le arn in g s yste m s th at c o ntr a st w it h
our W este rn p e rs p e ctiv e . N on-W este rn s yste m s a ppe ar to p la ce a g re ate r e m phasis o n in te rd e pe nde nce a s a
va lu e to b e d e ve lo pe d v e rs u s in de pe nde nce ; to lin k c o m munal o r c o m munit y c o nce rn s w it h le arn in g; to s e e
le arn in g a s a h o lis tic a ctiv it y w it h a s p ir it u al a sp e ct, in c o ntr a st to th e c o gnit iv e e m phasis o f th e W est; a nd
fin ally , to v a lu e a nd r e co gniz e in fo rm al le arn in g a s le git im ate .
SU M MARY
This c h apte r o n n o n-W este rn p e rs p e ctiv e s o f le arn in g a nd k n o w in g h as in tr o duce d th e r e ade r to o th e r w ays
of th in kin g a bo ut le arn in g th an is fo und in th e r e st o f th is b o ok. T he v a lu e o f e ngagin g w it h o th e r fr a m ew ork s is
th at w e a re c h alle nge d to th in k a bo ut th e p urp o se o f e duca tio n a nd le arn in g a s w ell a s q ue stio n th e n atu re o f
kn o w le dge p ro ductio n it s e lf . F u rth e r, k n o w in g s o m eth in g a bo ut o th e r s yste m s o f le arn in g c a n b o th le ad to
applic a tio ns in o ur p ra ctic e a nd c o ntr ib ute to o ur o w n p e rs o nal m eanin g-m akin g.
h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?
u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /le arn in g_and_kn ow in g_non_w este rn _pers p ectiv e s/0 As p art o f th is c h apte r w e a ls o b rie fly d is cu sse d s o m e im po rta nt c o nce pts , in clu din g p ro ble m atiz in g th e
Weste rn /n o n-W este rn d ic h o to m y it s e lf , d e fin in g c u lt u re , a nd c o nsid e rin g th e n atu re o f in dig e no us k n o w le dge .
The se c o nce pts a nd o th e rs fr a m e o ur b rie f fo ra y in to tr a dit io ns o f le arn in g a nd k n o w in g u nfa m ilia r to m ost o f
us. In lig ht o f th is u nfa m ilia rit y , w e o ffe re d s h o rt in tr o ductio ns to fiv e n o n-W este rn p e rs p e ctiv e s: C onfu cia nis m ,
Hin duis m , M ao ri, Is la m , a nd A fr ic a n in dig e no us k n o w le dge .
The fin al s e ctio n o f th e c h apte r p re se nte d fo ur th e m es th at s e em to s p an m any s yste m s o f n o n-W este rn
th o ught, th e m es th at c o ntr a st w it h W este rn p e rs p e ctiv e s. F ir s t, n o n-W este rn s yste m s e m phasiz e
in te rd e pe nde nce v e rs u s in de pe nde nce . S eco nd, a nd r e la te d to th e fir s t, is th at le arn in g in th e se fr a m ew ork s
is c o m munal a nd in c o m munit y , r a th e r th an a n is o la te d a ctiv it y . T hir d , a h o lis tic p e rs p e ctiv e th at in clu de s
sp ir it u al, e m bo die d, a nd e m otio nal c o m po ne nts o f le arn in g a re g iv e n a t le ast a s m uch e m phasis a s p ure ly
co gnit iv e a ppro ach e s. F in ally , in fo rm al le arn in g is r e co gniz e d a nd v a lu e d a s m uch a s, if n o t m ore th an fo rm al
le arn in g.
20 07 b y J o hn W ile y & S ons, In c. A ll r ig hts r e se rv e d.
h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?
u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /le arn in g_and_kn ow in g_non_w este rn _pers p ectiv e s/0 APA
Le arn in g a nd k n o w in g: N on W este rn p e rs p e ctiv e s. (2 0 07). In S . B . M erria m , R . S . C affa re lla , & L . M .
Baum gartn e r,
Le arn in g in a dult h ood: a c o m pre hensiv e g uid e
(3 rd e d.) . H obo ke n, N J: W ile y. R etr ie ve d fr o m
http :/ /lib e zp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?
url= h ttp :/ /s e arc h .c re do re fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /le arn in g_and_kn o w in g_no n_w este rn _pe rs p e ctiv e s/0 ?
in stit u tio nId =4 63
Chic ag o
"L e arn in g a nd K no w in g: N on W este rn P ers p e ctiv e s." In
Le arn in g in A dult h ood: A C om pre hensiv e G uid e
, b y
Shara n B . M erria m , R ose m ary S . C affa re lla , a nd L is a M . B aum gartn e r. 3 rd e d. W ile y, 2 0 07.
http :/ /lib e zp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?
url= h ttp :/ /s e arc h .c re do re fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /le arn in g_and_kn o w in g_no n_w este rn _pe rs p e ctiv e s/0 ?
in stit u tio nId =4 63
H arv ard
Le arn in g a nd k n o w in g: N on W este rn p e rs p e ctiv e s. (2 0 07). In S .B . M erria m , R .S . C affa re lla & L .M . B aum gartn e r,
Le arn in g in a dult h ood: a c o m pre hensiv e g uid e
. (3 rd e d.) . [O nlin e ]. H obo ke n: W ile y. A va ila ble fr o m :
http :/ /lib e zp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?
url= h ttp :/ /s e arc h .c re do re fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /le arn in g_and_kn o w in g_no n_w este rn _pe rs p e ctiv e s/0 ?
in stit u tio nId =4 63 [A cce sse d 2 8 J u ly 2 0 17 ].
M LA
"L e arn in g a nd K no w in g: N on W este rn P ers p e ctiv e s."
Le arn in g in A dult h ood: A C om pre hensiv e G uid e
, S hara n B .
Merria m , e t a l., W ile y, 3 rd e dit io n, 2 0 07.
Cre do R efe re nce
, h ttp :/ /lib e zp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?
url= h ttp :/ /s e arc h .c re do re fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /le arn in g_and_kn o w in g_no n_w este rn _pe rs p e ctiv e s/0 ?
in stit u tio nId =4 63. A cce sse d 2 8 J u l 2 0 17 .
h ttp ://lib ezp .lib .ls u .e du/lo gin ?
u rl= http ://s e arc h .c re dore fe re nce .c o m /c o nte nt/e ntr y /w ile yla /le arn in g_and_kn ow in g_non_w este rn _pers p ectiv e s/0
