for kim woods only

THE REMOTE DANISH-RULED ISLAND OF STE CROIX SEEMED FAR REMOVED FROM THE MAJOR POLITICAL AFFAIRS OF 1768. BUT AS A 13-YEAR-OLD BOY LAY IN BEDBURNING WITH FEVER ON THIS TROPICAL ISLAND,EVENTS WERE UNFOLDING IN THE WORLD THAT WOULD DICTATE HIS DESTINY. UPSTART AMERICAN COLONIES WERE CHAFING UNDER BRITISH TAXATION AND RUMORS OF REVOLUTION WERE SPREADING. EVERYONE WHO COULD READ SEEMED TO BE DISCUSSING JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU'S THE SOCIAL CONTRACT, THE KEY TEXT IN THE PHILOSOPHICAL MOVEMENT CALLED "THE ENLIGHTENMENT". THIS NEW THINKING EMPHASIZED REASON AS THE KEY TO UNDERSTANDING NATURE, ECONOMICS, AND POLITICS. IN 1768, THE FAMOUS WRITER AND DIPLOMAT, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, WAS TRAVELING IN EUROPE, VISITING KINGS, REPRESENTING THE COLONIES BEFORE THE BRITISH HOUSE OF COMMONS, AND ATTEMPTING TO DESIGN A PHONETIC ALPHABET IN HIS SPARE TIME. AND IN VIRGINIA A YOUNG MAN NAMED THOMAS JEFFERSON WAS ELECTED A REPRESENTATIVE TO THE HOUSE OF BURGESSES IN WILLIAMSBURG. THE BOY WHO SLOWLY RECOVERED, HOWEVER, HAD THOUGHTS ONLY OF HIS MOTHER, FOR SHE WOULD NOT RECOVER FROM THE FEVER. WITHIN DAYS THE BOY AND HIS BROTHER JAMES WOULD BEPARENTLESS AND PENNILESS AND AS ILLEGITIMATE SONS OF A FATHER WHO HAD LONG AGO ABANDONED THEM, THEIR PROSPECTS WERE NOT BRIGHT. A YEAR LATER HE WROTE TO A BOYHOOD FRIEND, "NED, MY AMBITION IS PREVALENT AND WOULD WILLINGLY RISK MY LIFE, THOUGH NOT MY CHARACTER, TO EXALT MY STATION. I SHALL CONCLUDE SAYING I WISH THERE WAS A WAR"

 ALEXANDER HAMILTON. WHEN YOU'RE A TEENAGER, HOW CAN YOU GET AHEAD IN THE WORLD? IT WAS A VERY CRUEL WORLD AT THAT TIME AND WISHING FOR A WAR, THIS IS A CHANCE FOR A YOUNG MAN TO GO OUT AND MAKE A NAME FOR HIMSELF. IN 1773, AS HAMILTON MADE HIS WAY TO ATTEND KINGS COLLEGE IN NEW YORK CITY, IT APPEARED HIS WISH MIGHT SOON BE GRANTED.ON DECEMBER 16TH, INSPIRED IN PART BY THE RADICAL PATRIOT, SAM ADAMS, BOSTON COLONISTS THREWBRITISH TEA INTO THE HARBOR TO PROTEST UNFAIR TAXATION. THE BRITISH RESPONDED BY TAKING OVER THE CITY. THE COLONIES DECIDED TO NAME DELEGATESTO A CONGRESS, THE FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS,TO DISCUSS A PLAN FOR UNITED RESISTANCE. A HARVARD EDUCATED LAWYER FROM MASSACHUSETTS,JOHN ADAMS, WAS ONE OF 56 CHOSEN TO ATTEND.ONLY SLIGHTLY LESS IMPATIENT FOR SEPARATION FROM ENGLAND THAN HIS FIERY COUSIN, SAM, JOHN WAS NEVERTHELESS WELL AWARE OF THE RISK AND RESPONSIBILITY HE BORE. HE WAS WORRIED. "WE HAVE NOT MEN FIT FOR THE TIMES. WE ARE DEFICIENT IN GENIUS, IN EDUCATION, IN TRAVEL, IN FORTUNE, IN EVERYTHING" - JOHN ADAMS. SOON THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR WOULD IGNITE AND RAGE ACROSS THE FERTILE COLONIES AND YOUNG ALEXANDER HAMILTON WOULD GET HIS WISH. AT THE AGE OF 19 HE LED A COMPANY OF NEW YORK ARTILLERY AND CAUGHT THE EYE OF GEORGE WASHINGTON NAMED COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF OF THE CONTINENTAL ARMY AT THE SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS IN JUNE 1775.HAMILTON WAS PROMOTED TO WASHINGTON'S PERSONAL SECRETARY AND COMMANDER IN THE FIELD, AND THUS MADE HIS ENTRY INTO THE POLITICAL WORLD. GENERAL WASHINGTON HIMSELF WAS AN UNEASY HERO. A WEALTHY VIRGINIA FARMER AND NEVER A GREAT WARRIOR, HE AVOIDED THE MORE POWERFUL BRITISH ARMY AS BEST HE COULD. HE WON SMALL SURPRISE ATTACKS BUT LOST MAJOR BATTLES. HIS MEN, HOWEVER, LOVED HIM. HE WAS IN THE SAME PREDICAMENT AS HIS MEN, UP THERE FREEZING UP IN VALLEY FORGE, PARTICIPATING IN BATTLES WITH HIS MEN AND NOT UP ON THE HILL WATCHING THEM. AND FOR THE MOST PART, RUNNING WITH HIS MEN AND TRYING TO KEEP THEM TOGETHER TOWARDS THE END OF THE WAR. ANOTHER VIRGINIAN, BORN TO A WEALTHY FARMING FAMILY, 33-YEAR-OLD THOMAS JEFFERSON HAD A DIFFERENT TASK BEFORE HIM. STILL GRIEVING FROM THE RECENT DEATH OF HIS MOTHER AND HIS INFANT DAUGHTER AND TORN WITH DEEP CONCERN FOR HIS DEPRESSED WIFE, JEFFERSON HAD BEEN ASKED TO COMPOSE A DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. "WHY DON'T YOU WRITE IT?" HE ASKED JOHN ADAMS."REASON FIRST: YOU ARE A VIRGINIAN AND A VIRGINIAN OUGHT TO APPEAR AT THE HEAD OF THIS BUSINESS.REASON SECOND: I AM OBNOXIOUS, SUSPECTED, AND UNPOPULAR. YOU ARE VERY MUCH OTHERWISE. REASON THIRD: YOU CAN WRITE TEN TIMES BETTER THAN I CAN" - JOHN ADAMS. AFTER DECLARING INDEPENDENCE IN 1776 THE COLONIES REALIZED THAT THEY MUST CREATEA SET OF LAWS TO GOVERN THEM. THE AMERICAN PEOPLE HAD JUST BROKEN OUT FROM UNDER A MONARCHY AND THEY WEREN'T INTERESTED IN A STRONG GOVERNMENT OR A RULER. THEY WANTED THE POWER TO STAY LOCAL. WITH THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR STILL RAGING IN THE BACKGROUND, CONGRESS DIDN'T HAVE TIME TO FOCUS ON NATIONAL AND STATE BORDERS, COMMERCE AND TRADE, OR MONETARY UNITS. STILL, DISPUTES BETWEEN STATES AROSE AND A STRONG BODY OF LAWS GOVERNING THESE DISPUTES WAS NEEDED. THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION WERE CREATED AS A SET OF LAWS WHICH GRANTED VIRTUALLYNO AUTHORITY TO THE EXECUTIVE, DIDN'T GIVE CONGRESS THE POWER TO TAX OR IMPOSE TARIFFS ON COMMERCE BETWEEN THE STATES, AND BROKE EVERYTHING DOWN INTO A SYSTEM OF COMMITTEES. IF THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION WERE IN PLACE TODAY, FOR EXAMPLE, IT MIGHT BE NECESSARY FOR SOMEONE WHO LIVED IN PENNSYLVANIA TO MOVE TONEW JERSEY IN ORDER TO BUY A JAPANESE CAR.SECONDLY, PEOPLE WERE DISSATISFIED BECAUSE WHILE CONGRESS COULDN'T TAX, STATES COULD, AND SOME STATES WERE USING THEIR TAX POWERS TO ADVANTAGE IN-STATE BUSINESSES, TO DISADVANTAGE OUT-OF-STATE BUSINESSES. IN EFFECT THEY WERE CREATING TRADE BARRIERS. FOLLOWING THE SURRENDER OF THEIR TROOPS TO WASHINGTON AT THE BATTLE OF YORKTOWN, VIRGINIA IN OCTOBER OF 1781, THE BRITISH LOST THE MOMENTUM NECESSARY TO WIN. THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR WAS OVER AND AMERICA HAD WON HER INDEPENDENCE. ALEXANDER HAMILTON RETURNED TO HIS LAW PRACTICE IN NEW YORK.JEFFERSON BECAME MINISTER TO FRANCE, JOHN ADAMS MINISTER TO BRITAIN, AND IN A MOVE THAT STUNNED MANY, GEORGE WASHINGTON REFUSED A ROLE AS THE NEW COUNTRY'S MONARCH, CHOOSING INSTEAD A QUIET RETREAT TO HIS PLANTATION IN VIRGINIA. IN THE YEARS FOLLOWING THE WAR IT BECAME EVIDENT THAT THE NEW NATION WAS DECLINING.CONFLICTS BETWEEN STATES ABOUT BOUNDARIES AND NEW TERRITORIES AROSE. STATES FORMED BITTER GRUDGES AGAINST EACH OTHER. ALSO THERE WERE THREATS THAT LARGER EUROPEAN NATIONS WOULD FORM ALLIANCES AGAINST THE UNITED STATES WHICH HAD NO ORGANIZED DEFENSE SYSTEM AND THE COUNTRY HAD A FORTY MILLION DOLLAR DEBT FROM THE WAR WITH NO MEANS OF RAISING THE MONEYOTHER THAN ASKING STATES FOR CONTRIBUTIONS. BUT THE STATES HAD HARDLY ANY MONEY AT ALL. A LOT OF THESE STATES AT THIS POINT WERE REFUSING TO EVEN SEND TROOPS TO HAVE A NATIONAL ARMY. SO THEY WERE VERY MUCH ON THEIR OWN. OVER THIS PERIOD OF TIME A LOT OF PROBLEMS ARE GOING TO DEVELOP BETWEEN THE BIG STATES AND THE SMALL STATES, THE FARMING STATES AND THE SHIPPING STATES. THIS IS WHERE THAT NEED FOR A CONSTITUTION, SOMETHING TO HOLD THEM ALL TOGETHER, COMES ABOUT. IN 1784, RUSSIA ESTABLISHED A SETTLEMENT ON KODIAK ISLAND, ALASKA. IN FRANCE, TWO BROTHERS WERE BUSY TESTING THE WORLD'S FIRST HOT AIR BALLOON.AND IN THE UNITED STATES THE FIRST ROAD ATLAS WASPUBLISHED BY CHRISTOPHER COLES IN 1786. GEORGE WASHINGTON, NOW AN EXECUTIVE OF THE POTOMAC NAVIGATION CO., INVITED VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND COMMISSIONERS TO HIS HOME, MT. VERNON, TO DISCUSS TRADE OPPORTUNITIES. THERE, A SMALLISH MAN WITH A MODEST VOICE STOOD AND SUGGESTED A NATIONAL CONVENTION TO DISCUSS COMMERCE CONDITIONS GENERALLY. THE OTHERS PRESENT AGREED WITH JAMES MADISON AND INVITATIONS WERE SENT TO ALL THE STATES TO MEET IN ANNAPOLIS. ONLY NINE STATES ACCEPTED AND DELEGATES FROM ONLY FOUR SHOWED UP. IT WAS OBVIOUS THAT THE MEETING COULDN'T BE HELD. ALEXANDER HAMILTON SUGGESTED POSTPONING THE MEETING TO THE NEXT YEAR AND BROADENING THE AGENDA TO INCLUDE ALL MANNER OF WAYS TO STRENGTHEN THE UNION. AT THE SAME TIME, NEWS ARRIVED FROM MASSACHUSETTS THAT A REVOLT OF POOR FARMERS SEEKING TAX RELIEF AND LED BY A MAN NAMED SHAY, HAD BEEN PUT DOWN BY STATE MILITIA THERE. FARMERS HAD, I GUESS, A HARD LIFE TO HOE, IF WE CAN SAY. MORTGAGE RATES UP TO ABOUT 33%, HAD A VERY HARD TIME GETTING ANYTHING YOU HAD TO MARKET; THE ROADS WERE NOT THERE YET, THE CANALS WERE NOT THERE YET, AND THESE WERE GUYS PROTESTING. IT SEEMED TO BE A PEACEFUL PROTEST.SHAY TAKES UP ARMS AND OF COURSE, "THIS IS TREASON". THESE EVENTS PLAYED INTO THE HANDS OF THE NATIONALISTS WHO WERE PUSHING FOR REPLACEMENT OF THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION WITH THE NEW DOCUMENTS THAT WOULD PROVIDE FOR A STRONGER NATIONAL GOVERNMENT. PROPERTIED INTERESTS WERE FEARFUL THAT THE GOVERNMENT WOULD NOT BE STRONG ENOUGH TO PROTECT THEIR PROPERTY. GEORGE WASHINGTON SAW SHAY'S REBELLION AS A DIRECT THREAT TO THE EXISTENCE OF GOVERNMENT AND IT CONVINCED HIM TO LEND HIS CONSIDERABLE PRESTIGE TO THE PHILADELPHIA CONVENTION. HE AGREED TO CHAIR THAT CONVENTIONIN THE WAKE OF SHAY'S REBELLION. ALL OF THE STATES, WITH THE EXCEPTION OF RHODE ISLAND, REPLIED THAT THEY WOULD HAVE A DELEGATION PRESENT IN PHILADELPHIA IN MAY OF 1787. THE CONVENTION WAS SCHEDULED TO BEGIN ON MAY 14, 1787. BUT ON THAT DAY ONLY TWO STATES, PENNSYLVANIA AND VIRGINIA, WERE PRESENT. IT WOULD TAKE TWO MORE WEEKS FOR EVERYONE TO SHOW UP. A WRITER, JAMES BURNS, WOULD LATER NOTE "THEY WERE THE WELL BRED, THE WELL FED, THE WELL READ AND THE WELL WED". DR. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN IS WELL-KNOWN TO BE THE GREATEST PHILOSOPHER OF THE PRESENT AGE. HE IS 82 YEARS OLD AND POSSESSES AN ACTIVITY OF MIND EQUAL TO A YOUTH OF 25. COLONEL ALEXANDER HAMILTON IS DESERVEDLY CELEBRATED FOR HIS TALENTS. HE IS ABOUT 33 YEARS OLD, OF SMALL STATURE, AND LEAN. HIS MANNERS ARE TINCTURED WITH STIFFNESS AND SOMETIMES WITH A DEGREE OF VANITY THAT IS HIGHLY DISAGREEABLE. GENERAL GEORGE WASHINGTON IS WELL-KNOWN AS THECOMMANDER IN CHIEF OF THE LATE AMERICAN ARMY.LIKE PETER THE GREAT, HE APPEARS AS THE POLITICIAN AND STATESMAN. THE GENERAL WAS CONDUCTED TO THE CHAIR AS PRESIDENT OF THE CONVENTION BY A UNANIMOUS VOTE OF ITS MEMBERS. HE IS IN THE 52ND YEAR OF HIS AGE. MR. MADISON IS ABOUT 37 YEARS OF AGE, A GENTLEMAN OF GREAT MODESTY WITH A REMARKABLE SWEET TEMPER. MAJOR WILLIAM PIERCE IN THE FEDERAL CONVENTION. BUSINESS BEGAN ON MAY 29TH. ALREADY THE WEATHER WAS WARMING AND NEARLY UNBEARABLE IN THE CONFINING EAST ROOM OF THE STATE HOUSE. HERE, THE DELEGATES WOULD SIT NEARLY EVERY DAY FOR FOUR HOT MONTHS IN A ROOM NOT QUITE 40' X 40'

- THE SAME ROOM WHERE THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE HAD BEEN SIGNED. DELEGATES SAT THREE OR FOUR TO A TABLE, DIPPING QUILL TO INK WELL, SCRIBBLING IN DIARIES, WIPING AT STEAMING SPECTACLES AND SWEATING BROWS. A RULE OF SECRECY WAS ADOPTED. UNANIMOUSLY VOTED TO BE THE PRESIDING OFFICER, WASHINGTON WAS ADAMANT ABOUT SECURITY LEAKS. ALL THE WINDOWS WERE NAILED SHUT AND THE LAST MERCIFUL BREEZE SNUFFED OUT. THE WORLD DID NOT KNOW WHAT WAS BEING SAID BEHIND THOSE CLOSED DOORS. THOMAS JEFFERSON, FROM HIS POST IN FRANCE, WAS INFURIATED AND HE WROTE TO JOHN ADAMS IN ENGLAND THAT "TYING UP THE TONGUES OF THE DELEGATES WAS ABOMINABLE". IT WAS HOT AS HELL. I MEAN, IF YOU READ THE JOURNALS, ALL THEY DO IS COMPLAIN. SOME OF THEM WOULD SNEAK DOWN TO SHORE GO TO CAPE MAY FOR THE AIR. AND YOU HAVE TO REMEMBER PHILADELPHIA AT THAT TIME, ALL OF SOUTH PHILADELPHIA WAS A SWAMP. IN THE SUMMER THE MOSQUITOES WERE OUT. EVERYONE WOULD BECOME DISEASED. AMONG THE FIRST PROPOSALS WAS THE "VIRGINIA PLAN" PRESENTED BY EDMUND RANDOLPH, BACKED BY GEORGE WASHINGTON, AND REPRESENTINGFOR THE MOST PART THE IDEAS OF JAMES MADISON.WHAT THE VIRGINIANS PROPOSED WAS A COMPLETELYNEW ALTERNATIVE TO THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION. THE PLAN PROPOSED A NATIONAL GOVERNMENT WITH THREE BRANCHES - LEGISLATIVE, JUDICIAL, AND EXECUTIVE. THE LEGISLATIVE WAS BICAMERAL - THAT IS, CONSISTING OF TWO HOUSES.THE PEOPLE WOULD ELECT THE FIRST HOUSE... THAT HOUSE WOULD THEN ELECT A SECOND. THE CONVENTION WAS STUNNED, BUT A QUICK MOTION BY GOUVERNEUR MORRIS RESULTED IN A 6-1 VOTE THAT A NATIONAL GOVERNMENT OUGHT TO BE ESTABLISHED CONSISTING OF A SUPREME LEGISLATIVE, EXECUTIVE, AND JUDICIARY. THIS EARLY VOTE WAS PROBABLY THE CONVENTION'S MOST SIGNIFICANT... AN AGREEMENT TO CREATE A SUPREME CENTRAL GOVERNMENT. BUT VERY QUICKLY IT BECAME APPARENT, THANKS LARGELY TO JAMES MADISON THROUGH HIS PLAN OF UNION WHICHWAS THE FIRST ONE PUT UP FOR DISCUSSION, THAT IT WAS NOT GOING TO BE SOME TINKERING WITH THEARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION BUT A WHOLESALESCRAPPING AND REDOING OF THE PLAN OF GOVERNMENT. THE MATTER OF ELECTIONS DID NOT PROCEED SO SWIFTLY. MADISON'S IMPASSIONED PLEAS THAT AT LEAST ONE BRANCH OF THE LEGISLATURE BE ELECTED BY THE PEOPLE RESULTED IN A 6-2 VOTE TO THAT EFFECT FOR THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.BUT ON THE ISSUE OF THE SENATE THE ASSEMBLY WAS VERY MUCH DIVIDED. THE DEBATE RAGED WITH MANY PREFERRING AN ELITE SENATE SIMILAR TO THE HOUSE OF LORDS IN ENGLAND. THE DECISION WAS PUT OFF FOR A WEEK. THE SENATE, THE UPPER CHAMBER, WAS DESIGNED TO BE LESS DIRECTLY RESPONSIVE TO THE PEOPLE. ITS MEMBERS SERVED SIX-YEAR TERMS ANDORIGINALLY SENATORS WERE ELECTED, NOT THROUGHDIRECT POPULAR VOTE, RATHER THEY WERE ELECTED BY STATE LEGISLATORS WHO SELECTED THEM ON BEHALFOF THE PEOPLE OF THEIR RESPECTIVE STATES. ONLY WHEN THE 17TH AMENDMENT WAS RATIFIED IN 1913 DID WE MOVE TO A DIRECT POPULAR VOTE SYSTEM FOR ELECTING SENATORS. NEW DISPUTES AROSE AMONG THE EVER-SHIFTING FACTIONS

- SMALL STATES VERSUS LARGE STATES AND NORTH VERSUS SOUTH. AGAIN AND AGAIN, ISSUES WERE RESOLVED THROUGH COMPROMISE. CONNECTICUT HAD A PLAN THAT RESOLVED A DISPUTE BETWEEN THE SMALL AND BIG STATES. IT SUGGESTED THAT EACH STATE IN THE SENATE WOULD HAVE EQUAL REPRESENTATION, WHILE IN THE HOUSE, STATES WOULD BE REPRESENTED ACCORDING TO POPULATION.THIS SEEMED TO SATISFY BOTH THE LARGE AND THESMALL STATES AND IT WAS PASSED ON JULY 5TH. THE NORTHERN STATES AND THE SOUTHERN STATESDISPUTED OVER THE ISSUE OF SLAVERY. THERE WERE MANY MEN PRESENT OPPOSED TO SLAVERY, BUT SOME OF THE GIANTS OF THE CONVENTION OWNED HUNDREDS OF SLAVES. JOHN RUTLEDGE, GEORGE MASON, AND GEORGE WASHINGTON WERE IN FACT THE LARGEST SLAVEHOLDERS IN THE COUNTRY. MANY DELEGATES REALIZED THAT IF THEY TRIED TO DEBATE THE ISSUE OF SLAVERY THE CONSTITUTION WOULD PROBABLY NEVER BE COMPLETED, MUCH LESS RATIFIED.FINALLY, THE NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN STATES CAME TO A COMPROMISE. IN EXCHANGE FOR PASSING A NAVIGATIONS ACT THAT WOULD TAX THE SLAVE TRADE, AS WELL AS OTHER COMMERCE, IT WAS AGREED THAT THE ISSUE OF SLAVERY WOULDN'T BE BROUGHT UP AGAIN FOR ANOTHER 20 YEARS. THE FINAL MAJOR ISSUE THAT HAD TO BE DISCUSSED WAS THE WAY IN WHICH THE PRESIDENT WOULD BE ELECTED AND THE LENGTH OF HIS TERM. THE AMERICAN PEOPLE DID NOT ELECT THE PRESIDENT. INSTEAD THEY ELECT ELECTORS WHO SELECT THE PRESIDENT ON THEIR BEHALF. THE ELECTORAL COLLEGE WAS A COMPROMISE WORKED OUT BY THE FRAMERS. SOME OF THEM WANTED A DIRECT POPULAR VOTE FOR SELECTING THE PRESIDENT. THAT PLAN WAS REJECTED FOR FEAR THAT THE CITIZENSWOULD NOT BE SUFFICIENTLY WELL-INFORMED TO MAKE SUCH AN IMPORTANT CHOICE. OTHERS THOUGHT THAT THE PRESIDENT SHOULD BE ELECTED BY STATE LEGISLATORS OR PERHAPS BY CONGRESS. THIS PLAN WAS REJECTED IN ORDER TO PRESERVE PRESIDENTIAL INDEPENDENCE

- PART OF THE SYSTEM OF SEPARATION OF POWERS.INSTEAD, THE PLAN WAS THAT STATE LEGISLATORS WOULD SELECT AMONG THE WISEST MEMBERS OF THE COMMUNITY, SPECIAL ELECTORS WHO WOULD THEN PICK A PRESIDENT ON BEHALF OF THE PEOPLE OF THEIR STATES. BY JULY 26TH, THE DELEGATES HAD BASICALLYFINISHED SKETCHING OUT THE CONSTITUTION AND IT WAS HANDED OVER TO THE COMMITTEE OF DETAILS TO SMOOTH OUT THE IDEAS AND PUT THEM INTO SIMPLE LANGUAGE. THE COMMITTEE MADE TWO MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS: THEY LISTED 18 SPECIFIC POWERS OF CONGRESS, AND EDMUND RANDOLPH IMBUED THE DRAFT WITH THE IDEA THAT THE DETAILS WERE NOT AS IMPORTANT AS THE PRINCIPLES OF THE CONSTITUTION.ON AUGUST 6TH THE COMMITTEE OF STYLE TOOK OVER THE APPROVED DRAFT OF THE CONSTITUTION. THEY WERE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE FINAL WORDING OF THE DOCUMENT. THE MOST NOTEWORTHY CONTRIBUTION WAS THAT OF GOUVERNEUR MORRIS WHO REWROTE THE PREAMBLE UNIFYING THE STATES AND GRANTING FINAL AUTHORITY TO THE PEOPLE. "WE THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES, IN ORDER TO FORM A MORE PERFECT UNION, ESTABLISH JUSTICE, INSURE DOMESTIC TRANQUILITY, PROVIDE FOR THE COMMON DEFENSE, PROMOTE THE GENERAL WELFARE, AND SECURE THE BLESSINGS OF LIBERTY TO OURSELVES AND OUR POSTERITY, DO ORDAIN AND ESTABLISH THIS CONSTITUTION FOR THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA".ON SEPTEMBER 17, THE CONVENTION WAS FINALLYCOMING TO AN END. EACH DELEGATE HAD TO DECIDE FOR THEMSELVES TO SIGN THE DOCUMENT OR NOT."FOR WHEN YOU ASSEMBLE A NUMBER OF MEN TO HAVE THE ADVANTAGE OF THEIR JOINT WISDOM YOU INEVITABLY ASSEMBLE WITH THOSE MEN ALL THEIR PREJUDICES, THEIR PASSIONS, THEIR ERRORS OF OPINION, THEIR LOCAL INTERESTS, AND THEIR SELFISH VIEWS. FROM SUCH AN ASSEMBLY CAN A PERFECT PRODUCTION BE EXPECTED? IT THEREFORE ASTONISHES ME, SIR, TO FIND THIS SYSTEM APPROACHING SO NEAR TO PERFECTION AS IT DOES.AND I THINK IT WILL ASTONISH OUR ENEMIES; THUS I CONSENT, SIR, TO THIS CONSTITUTION BECAUSE I EXPECT NO BETTER AND BECAUSE I AM NOT SURE THAT IT IS NOT THE BEST" - BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. ONE BY ONE, ALL BUT TWO OF THE DELEGATES SIGNED THE CONSTITUTION. THE CLOSED DOORS WERE NOW THROWN WIDE... SUNLIGHT STREAMED IN... THE GREATEST CHALLENGE, HOWEVER, WAS YET TO COME:RATIFICATION. THE ORIGINAL CONSTITUTION CONTAINED JUST 4,223 WORDS. TODAY IT COVERS ABOUT EIGHT PAGES IN THE WORLD ALMANAC. IT'S A BRIEF DOCUMENT. MANY STATE CONSTITUTIONS ARE CONSIDERABLY LONGER THAN THIS CONSTITUTION. THE BILL OF RIGHTS, FIRST TEN AMENDMENTS, WERE ADDED TO THE CONSTITUTION ALMOST IMMEDIATELY. EACH PROVISION OF THE BILL OF RIGHTS IS IN RESPONSE TO A SPECIFIC ABUSE OF POWER BY THE BRITISH PRIOR TO 1776. SO WHAT HAPPENS IS YOU'RE CREATING THIS NEW CENTRAL GOVERNMENT. IT'S AN UNTRIED, IT'S AN UNPROVEN THING. SO WHAT YOU HAVE IS THE STATES INSISTING ON LIMITATIONS ON THE POWER TO MAKE SURE THAT THESE ARE THINGS THAT THIS NEW CENTRAL GOVERNMENT CANNOT DO. SO THIS WAS SOMETHING NEW. YOU'RE GIVING UP A LOT OF THOSE, WHAT WE WOULD CALL "STATE'S RIGHTS" AND WE WERE VERY JEALOUS OF THOSE AND THEY MAKE THEM WRITE IN THE CONSTITUTION WHAT IS RESERVED FOR THE PEOPLE ASSEMBLED IN THE STATES. THE SMALLER STATES WERE HAPPIEST WITH THE CONSTITUTION AND DELAWARE WAS THE FIRST TO RATIFY IT, FOLLOWED QUICKLY BY NEW JERSEY, CONNECTICUT, AND GEORGIA.ONE BY ONE, ALL THE STATES CAME AROUND. BY THE END OF MAY 1788, EIGHT STATES HAD RATIFIED THE CONSTITUTION. THE BIGGEST AND LONGEST BATTLES WERE IN NEW YORK AND VIRGINIA. THESE WERE TWO BIG AND POWERFUL STATES AND WITHOUT THEIR SUPPORTTHE CONSTITUTION COULD NOT SURVIVE. THE MECHANISM WAS THAT EACH STATE HAD SOME DEVICE TO ELECT PEOPLE TO SEND DELEGATES TO THESE CONVENTIONS. THEY WERE WHOLLY APART FROM THE STATE LEGISLATORS. THEIR SOLE REASON FOR BEING WAS TO DEBATE AND THEN TO APPROVE - OR NOT - THE NEW PROPOSED CONSTITUTION. AND SO RATIFICATION CAME EASY IN SOME STATES AND IT WAS A KNOCKDOWN STRUGGLE IN OTHERS. NORTH CAROLINA, FOR INSTANCE, TURNED IT DOWN ONE TIME AND NOT UNTIL SOME TIME LATER DID THEY ACTUALLY VOTE APPROVAL.THE COUNTRY WAS FAR MORE DIVIDED OVER THECONSTITUTION THAN THE DELEGATES WHO DESIGNED IT. THE OPPONENTS WERE ANGRY THAT THE CONVENTION HAD OVERSTEPPED ITS BOUNDS. AS ADVOCATES OF STATES RIGHTS, THESE ANTI-FEDERALISTS, AS THEY BECAME KNOWN, BEGAN TO TEAR THE WORK DOWN CLAUSE BY CLAUSE IN SPEECHES AND IN NEWSPAPERS. IN RESPONSE, A SERIES OF BRILLIANT ANONYMOUS ESSAYS BEGAN TO APPEAR IN NEW YORK CITY NEWSPAPERS THAT PRESENTED SOME OF THE BEST ARGUMENTS, EVEN TO THIS DAY, ON WHAT THE ORIGINAL FRAMERS OF THE CONSTITUTION INTENDED. THEY BECAME KNOWN AS THE FEDERALIST PAPERS. FOR POLITICAL REASONS, THEY DID NOT WANT TO BE IDENTIFIED WITH SPECIFIC SELECTIONS. IN RETROSPECT WE'VE BEEN ABLE TO DETERMINE THAT HAMILTON WROTE THE MAJORITY OF THE FEDERALIST PAPERS. MADISON WAS THE SECOND MOST FREQUENT AUTHOR OF THE PAPERS, AND JOHN JAY WROTE JUST FIVE OF THE FEDERALIST PAPERS. THESE PAPERS OFFERED A PHILOSOPHICAL DEFENSE OF THE PROPOSED CONSTITUTION. THEY ARE PROBABLY THE SINGLE BEST PLACE TO LOOK FOR INFORMATION ABOUT WHAT THE FRAMERS INTENDED WRITING THE CONSTITUTION. VIRGINIA RATIFIED THE CONSTITUTIONIN THE SUMMER OF 1788. IN JULY, NEW YORK ALSO PASSED IT BY A MARGIN OF THREE VOTES. HAD THE CONSTITUTION NOT BEEN RATIFIED, WHAT WOULD'VE HAPPENED, I SUSPECT, WITHIN SHORT ORDER, THE AMERICAN STATES WOULD HAVE BEEN GOBBLED UP BY SEVERAL OF THE EUROPEAN POWERS WHETHER IT WAS SPAIN, FRANCE, BRITAIN MAYBE. MAYBE ALL THREE.THEN PERHAPS THERE MIGHT HAVE BEEN A NEW REVOLUTION AT SOME LATER TIME. BUT WITHOUT THE CONSTITUTION OR SOMETHING LIKE THE CONSTITUTION YOU WOULD NOT HAVE HAD THEDEVELOPMENT, THE EMERGENCE OF A MODERN NATION STATE THAT WE WOULD CALL THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. WHAT BEGAN IN A SMALL AIRLESS ROOM OVER 200 YEARS AGO RESULTED IN A DOCUMENT THAT HAS SURVIVED THE RAPIDS OF HISTORY, WAR, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL UPHEAVAL, INDUSTRY, TECHNOLOGY;DESPITE ALL OF THE CHANGES, THE GOALS OF THE CONSTITUTION HAVE REMAINED UNCHANGED. THE REASON IS PERHAPS BEST EXPRESSED BY THE MAN WHO BEGAN HIS CAREER A PENNILESS, PARENTLESSIMMIGRANT TO HIS COUNTRY, BUT IN THE END MADE SOME OF THE MOST INSPIRED ARGUMENTS FOR THE REALIZATION OF THAT COUNTRY'S VISION AND PURPOSE. "THE SACRED RIGHTS OF MANKIND ARE NOT TO BE RUMMAGED FOR AMONG OLD PARCHMENTS OR MUSTY RECORDS. THEY ARE WRITTEN AS WITH A SUNBEAM IN THE WHOLE VOLUME OF HUMAN NATUREBY THE HAND OF DIVINITY ITSELF AND CAN NEVER BE ERASED OR OBSCURED BY MORTAL POWER"

- ALEXANDER HAMILTON.